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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 

Water-supply Paper 343 



GEOLOGY AM) WATER RESOURCES 

OF 

TULAROSA BASIN, NEW MEXICO 



BY 



O. E. MEINZER and R. F. HARE 



Prepared in cooperation with the New Mexico 
Agricultural Experiment Station 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1915 



Jfatograpfe 



/ 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water- Supply Paper 343 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 

OF 



*i3 



TULAROSA BASIN, NEW MEXICO 



BY 



' O. E. MEINZER and R. F. HARE 



Prepared in cooperation with the New Mexico 
Agricultural Experiment Station 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1915 




<-? 



6 






% 8F C 
APR 14 1915 



(o 

— . 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction 11 

Location and main features 11 

Name. .. 13 

Climate 14 

History 15 

Industrial development ... 18 

Purpose and history of the investigation 20 

Previous investigations and literature 21 

Physiography and drainage 25 

General features 25 

Mountains and plateaus 26 

Sacramento Mountains , 26 

Sierra Blanca 27 

Tucson, Carrizo, Baxter, and Lone mountains 27 

Jicarilla Mountains 28 

Gallinas Mountains 28 

Chupadera Plateau. 28 

Oscuro Mountains 29 

Little Burro Mountains 29 

San Andreas Mountains . . . . &4 -7* 29 

Organ Mountains -*?&£ 30 

Jarilla Mountains ' 1 ....*. 31 

Northern part of interior area 31 

General features 31 

Benches and rock escarpments 32 

Other hills and ridges. 33 

Sink holes 34 

Volcanoes and lava beds 34 

Younger lava bed , 34 

Older lava bed 37 

Younger volcanic cone 38 

Older volcanic cones 39 

Southern part of interior area 40 

General features 40 

Buttes 41 

Fault scarps and shore features .- 41 

Alkali flats 44 

Dunes 45 

Sink holes 47 

Arroyos 48 

Meadow south of the white sands 51 

Features produced by springs 52 

Geology 53 

General features 53 

Pre-Carboniferous granite. . ? ,,„„.,, ,^ ? i 55 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Geology — Continued. Page. 

Carboniferous sedimentary rocks 56 

Distribution 56 

Relation to older rocks 56 

Mississippian series 57 

Pennsylvanian series 57 

Outcrops 57 

Subdivisions 57 

Sacramento section 57 

Oscuro section 58 

San Andreas section 60 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks 60 

Tertiary intrusive rocks and igneous rocks of uncertain age 62 

Tertiary (?) sedimentary rocks 64 

Valley fill (Quaternary and Tertiary (?)) 64 

Distribution, thickness, and age 64 

Water-deposited clay, sand, and gravel 66 

Gypsum deposits 69 

Wind-deposited quartz sand 71 

Saline deposits 72 

Caliche 72 

Quaternary basalt 72 

Character and distribution 72 

Weathering and other changes 73 

Age 74 

Structure 74 

Faults 74 

Distribution 74 

San Andreas-Sacramento section 74 

Oscuro-Sierra Blanca section 75 

Northern section 76 

Age 77 

Unconformities 77 

Volcanic structures 77 

Geologic history 77 

Pre-Carboniferous erosion 77 

Carboniferous sedimentation 78 

Post-Carboniferous erosion 78 

Cretaceous sedimentation 79 

Post-Cretaceous volcanism, deformation, erosion, and nonmarine sedi- 
mentation , 79 

Precipitation 80 

Records 80 

Average precipitation : 85 

Distribution from year to year 86 

Seasonal distribution 88 

Geographic distribution 89 

Relation to agriculture and water supplies. 92 

Water in valley fill : 95 

Area and problems 95 

Sources of water 95 

General circulation 95 

Zones of precipitation, run-off, and percolation 96 

Mountain areas 97 



CONTENTS. 5 

Water in valley fill — Continued. 

Sources of water — Continued. Page. 

Zone of gravelly sediments 98 

Zone of dense adobe 99 

The gypseous plain and the mid-slope arroyos 99 

Areas of gypsum sands and quartz sands 100 

• Lava beds 100 

Alkali flats 101 

Summary 101 

Occurrence of water 101 

Water table. 102 

Significance 102 

Form 103 

Relation to land surface 104 

Fluctuations 106 

Disposal of water 107 

Yield of wells . 110 

Wells north of Jarilla Mountains 110 

Otis wells 110 

Hill wells Ill 

Votaw well Ill 

Purday well : Ill 

Larsen wells 112 

Morgan well 112 

Carl wells 112 

Wertane well 112 

Bowden well 113 

Aplewell 113 

Loomas well 113 

Pierce well 113 

Patty well 113 

Camp well 114 

Summary 114 

Wells south of Jarilla Mountains 115 

Railroad wells at Newman 115 

El Paso & Southwestern Railroad wells at Fort Bliss 115 

Army post wells at Fort Bliss 115 

Southern Pacific Co.'s wells at Fort Bliss 115 

El Paso waterworks wells 115 

Methods of constructing wells 118 

Drilling, boring, and digging , 118 

Casing 119 

Finishing 120 

Artesian head 122 

Quality of water 124 

Quantity of dissolved solids 124 

Character of dissolved solids 125 

Calcium 126 

Magnesium 128 

Sodium and potassium 128 

Acid radicles 130 

Relation of dissolved solids to derivative rocks 131 

Relation of dissolved solids to depth of the water table 132 

Relation of dissolved solids to depth of water-bearing beds 133 



b CONTENTS. 

Water in valley fill — Continued. 

Quality of water — Continued. Page. 

Effects of dissolved solids on use of water 134 

Drinking and culinary use 134 

Laundry and toilet use '. 136 

Boiler use 136 

Irrigation use 137 

Water in Cretaceous rocks and overlying sediments 138 

Area and problems 138 

Springs 139 

Infiltration ditches 139 

Wells '. . 141 

Wells near north end of younger lava bed 141 

Wells on the Nogal Arroyo slope 142 

Shallow wells in the vicinity of Carrizozo 144 

Carrizozo railroad wells 145 

Wells in the vicinity of Polly 147 

Wells at Whiteoaks 147 

Shallow wells in the vicinity of Oscuro 148 

Oscuro railroad wells 149 

Wells in Three Rivers Valley 151 

Water-bearing capacity of rocks 152 

Water levels and artesian head 153 

Quality of water 154 

Prospects 155 

Water in Carboniferous rocks and overlying sediments 157 

Area and problems 157 

Springs 157 

Wells 158 

Wells in the Transmalpais Hills 158 

Wells in the Oscuro foothills 159 

Ancho railroad wells 160 

Wells west of Ancho 162 

Wells near Gran Quivira 163 

Gallinas railroad well 163 

Wells between Gallinas and Vaughn *. 164 

Wells in the vicinity of Vaughn 164 

Railroad wells at Pastura 166 

Wells near Pecos River 167 

Wells in the Jarilla Mountains 168 

Water-bearing capacity of the rocks 169 

Water levels and artesian head. 170 

Head produced by Sacramento Mountains 170 

Head produced by San Andreas Mountains 170 

Head produced by Oscuro Mountains 170 

Water pockets 170 

Fundamental water table in the plateau region 172 

Quality of water 173 

Prospects 174 

Wat er in igneous rocks 175 

Soil and native vegetation in relation to water supplies 176 

Types of soil 176 

Relation of soils to derivative rocks 178 

Relation of soils to circulation of water 178 

Relation of soils to depth of water table 179 



CONTENTS. 7 

Soil and native vegetation in relation to water supplies — Continued. Page. 

Plant foods in the soil 179 

Alkali in the soil 180 

Kin ds of alkali 180 

Alkali analyses 181 

Sulphates 181 

Carbonates . 183 

Chlorides 184 

Special type of black alkali 184 

Relation of alkali to types of soil 186 

Relation of alkali to the water level 187 

Disposal of alkali 191 

Zones of native vegetation ■ 193 

Relation of vegetation to soil 196 

Relation of vegetation to water supplies 197 

Relation of vegetation to temperature 199 

Distribution of soils and vegetation in the shallow-water belt 199 

Irrigation 206 

Streams and springs 206 

Sources of supply 206 

Tularosa River 207 

La Luz and Fresnal creeks : 208 

Alamo Canyon. 208 

Three Rivers 208 

Storage projects 209 

Isolated springs 209 

Flood waters 209 

Wells 210 

Developments 210 

Irrigable areas 213 

Pumping appliances and power 215 

Storage and distribution 220 

Agricultural methods 221 

Railroad and public supplies ■ . 223 

General conditions 223 

Bonita pipe-line system 224 

Oscuro supplies 226 

Domestic supplies at Tularosa and La Luz 226 

Supplies at Mescalero Agency and Cloudcroft 226 

Alamogordo supply. 226 

Sacramento River pipe line 227 

El Paso public supply 228 

Watering places on routes of travel 228 

Introduction 228 

Routes of travel 229 

Railroad stations and connecting roads 229 

Railroad connections 229 

Stations 229 

Wagon roads 229 

Table of distances 230 

Routes to Pecos Valley 231 

General conditions 231 

Alamogordo routes 231 

Tularosa routes 232 

Carrizozo routes 232 

Ancho routes 233 



8 CONTENTS. 

Watering places on routes of travel — Continued. 

Routes of travel — Continued. Page. 

Routes to Estancia Valley and adjacent regions 233 

General conditions 233 

Corona route 234 

Carrizozo and points west of the malpais to Torrance and Ce- 

darvale 234 

Torrance to Vaughn and beyond 234 

Torrance to Pinos Wells, Encino, and beyond 235 

Cedarvale to Willard, Estancia, and beyond 236 

Table of distances 237 

Gran Quivira route 237 

Carrizozo and points west of the malpais to Gran Quivira. ... 237 

Gran Quivira to Willard, Estancia, and beyond 238 

Gran Quivira to Mountainair, Manzano, and beyond 238 

Table of distances 238 

Routes to Rio Grande valley 239 

General conditions 239 

Hansonberg route 239 

General outline 239 

To Hansonberg by way of iron mines 240 

To Hansonberg by way of Ozanne 240 

Table of distances 241 

Mockingbird Gap route 241 

General conditions 241 

Oscuro and Three Rivers to Mockingbird Gap 241 

Carrizozo to Mockingbird Gap 242 

Duck Lake and Red Canyon to Mockingbird Gap 242 

Tularosa and Malpais Spring to Mockingbird Gap 242 

Mockingbird Gap to the Rio Grande 242 

Table of distances 242 

Lava Gap route 243 

Sulphur Canyon route 244 

Alamogordo and Tularosa to Sulphur Canyon 244 

West side of the malpais to Sulphur Canyon 245 

East side of the malpais to Sulphur Canyon 245 

Dog Canyon to Sulphur Canyon 245 

Sulphur Canyon to Cutter and Engle 245 

Table of distances 245 

San Agustin Pass route 246 

Alamogordo to San Agustin Pass 246 

Tularosa and La Luz to San Agustin Pass 247 

Dog Canyon to San Agustin Pass 247 

West side of white sands to San Agustin Pass 247 

Orogrande to San Agustin Pass 247 

San Agustin Pass to Las Cruces and Dona Ana 248 

Table of distances 248 

Routes to El Paso 248 

Outline 248 

Western routes 248 

Eastern route 249 

Table of distances 249 

Watering places 249 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 9 

Page. 

A nalyses .• 265 

Methods of analysis, by R. F. Hare 265 

Table 1. — Wells and analyses of well waters in Tularosa Basin 268 

Table 2. — Analyses of spring waters in Tularosa Basin 300 

Table 3. — Analyses of stream waters in Tularosa Basin 302 

Table 4. — Analyses of certain well waters in areas north of Tularosa Basin. 303 

Table 5. — Analyses of certain well waters in areas south of Tularosa Basin. 304 

Table 6. — Analyses of soils in Tularosa Basin 306 

Index 313 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 
Plate I. Map of Tularosa Basin, N. Mex., showing principal roads and water- 
ing places In pocket. 

II. Map of principal shallow-water area of Tularosa Basin, showing geol- 
ogy, underground waters, and vegetation In pocket. 

III. Map of Alamo National Forest, showing drainage basins, roads, and 

watering places In pocket. 

IV. Map of Tularosa Basin and adjacent country, 1851 14 

V. Map of Tularosa Basin and adjacent country, 1859-1867 16 

VI. Map of a part of Tularosa Basin, showing ground-water conditions in 

the vicinity of Carrizozo 26 

VII. A, Edge of younger lava bed, showing fissure; B, Younger lava, show- 
ing roughness of surface 36 

VIII. A, Edge of younger lava, showing terrace; B, Sink hole extending 
below ground-water level; C, Salt Greek, supplied from ground- 
water seepage 37 

IX. A, Stratified valley fill at El Paso; B, Cliff and terrace features north 

of San Agustin Pass , 42 

X. Cliff and terrace features east of Franklin Mountains 43 

XI. A and B, Cliff and terrace features near San Agustin Pass 44 

XII. Freshly deposited gypsum sand 45 

XIII. Wind-eroded gypsum sand, showing bedding 46 

XIV. A, Bank of mid-slope arroyo, showing stratified gypsum underlain by 

red adobe ; B, Gypsum-sand area 47 

XV. A, Sink holes in area underlain by Pennsylvanian rocks; B, Stratified 

gypsum in bank of alkali flat ; C, Sink hole in interior gypsum plain . 48 

XVI. A and B, Mound springs 52 

XVII. Reconnaissance geologic map of Tularosa Basin 54 

XVIII. A, Valley of Tularosa River, showing aggradation produced by traver- 
tine dam; B, Shoemaker's flowing well, with Cerrito Tularosa in 

background 158 

XIX. Sections of railroad wells at Varney, Duran, and Vaughn, N. Mex. .. 164 

Figure 1. Index map of New Mexico 12 

2. Diagram showing general relation of temperature and rainfall to 

altitude in Tularosa Basin 14 

3. Sections illustrating the rock structure and resulting topography of 

the northern part of Tularosa Basin 33 

4. Profile showing marginal terrace of younger lava bed 36 

5. Sketch map and section of volcanic cone on the younger lava bed . . 38 

6. Profiles of volcanic cones -. . 39 

7. Profile across southern part of alkali flat and gypsum sands 44 

8. Profiles of mid-slope arroyos and of the plain which they dissect. . 49 



10 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Pago. 

Figure 9. Map showing Mound Springs 52 

10. Columnar section of formations in Tularosa Basin 54 

11 . Sections of deep test well near Alamogordo 64 

12. Section of deep test well near Dog Canyon station 65 

13. Partial section of the deepest well at El Paso waterworks .' . 66 

14. Section of railroad well at Newman 67 

15. Sections of four wells at El Paso waterworks 68 

16. Section showing relation of gypsum to adobe and of capillary water 

to the ground-water level 70 

17. Section showing relation of gypsum to adobe 70 

18. Diagram showing hypothetical structure of the San Andreas-Sacra- 

mento section 75 

19. Diagram showing annual precipitation 87 

20. Diagram showing average monthly precipitation 88 

21. Diagram showing monthly precipitation at Alamogordo. 89 

22. Map of drainage areas of La Luz and Fresnal creeks, showing location 

of rain gages and stream gages 91 

23. Diagram showing relation of precipitation to altitude in drainage 

areas of La Luz and Fresnal creeks 92 

24. Diagram showing relation of precipitation to altitude in southeastern 

Arizona 93 

25. Diagram showing increase in precipitation from El Paso, Tex., to 

Corona, N. Mex 94 

26. Diagram showing water zones and general circulation of water 95 

27. Map showing pumping plant and wells of El Paso waterworks 116 

28. Diagram of typical El Paso waterworks well, showing air lift 117 

29. Section of dug well showing zone of caving due to moist gypsum.. . 119 

30. Well sections showing methods of developing gravel screens 122 

31. Section showing relation of underground barriers to the water table. . 140 

32. Sections of railroad wells at Carrizozo 146 

33. Sections of railroad wells at Oscuro 150 

34. Section of E. E. Phillips's well, west of Duck Lake 159 

35. Sections of railroad wells near Ancho 161 

36. Section of railroad well at Gallinas 163 

37. Sections of railroad wells at Pastura 166 

38. Section of railroad well at Ricardo 167 

39. Section of railroad well at Orogrande 168 

40. Section from Ancho to Santa Rosa showing water table 171 

41. Section along Belen cut-off showing water table 172 

42. Hypothetical section to explain dry holes of great depth 174 

43. Section across small arroyo showing relation of soil and vegetation 

to topography 186 

44. Diagram showing relation of soluble solids in soils to depth of water 

table 188 

45. Diagram showing relation of sodium chloride in soils to depth of 

water table 190 

46. Map of a part of the west slope of Tularosa Basin, showing zones of 

vegetation 194 

47. Diagrams showing range of dominant vegetation with regard to total 

soluble solids in soils analyzed 197 

48. Diagrams showing range of dominant vegetation with regard -to 

sodium chloride in soils analyzed 198 

49. ( londensed profile of Bonita pipe line 224 

50. Map showing settlements connected with Cloudcroft by mail routes 

a nd route from Cloudcroft to Artesia 232 

51. Map showing settlements connected with Carrizozo by mail routes 

and route from Carrizozo to Roswell 233 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA 
BASIN, NEW MEXICO, AND ADJACENT AREAS. 



By O. E. Meinzer and R. F. Hare. 



INTKODUCTION. 

LOCATION" AND MAIN FEATURES. 

West of the Great Plains in New Mexico, Texas, and old Mexico 
is a region consisting of isolated mountain ranges and intervening 
plains or broad open valleys. The Pecos and Rio Grande flow 
through several of these valleys, but in the region between these 
rivers there are other valleys which are entirely inclosed by higher 
ground and therefore have no drainage outlets. Examples of closed 
basins between the Pecos and Rio Grande in New Mexico are Estan- 
cia Basin, Encino Basin, Pinos Wells Basin, and Tularosa Basin. 
(See fig. 1.) 

Tularosa Basin is bounded on the east by the Jicarilla, Sierra 
Blanca, and Sacramento mountains and on the west by the Chu- 
padera Plateau and the Oscuro, Little Burro, San Andreas, and 
Organ mountains. Northward it rises gradually to form the Mesa 
Jumanes, which ends in an abrupt escarpment overlooking the 
Estancia Basin, but on the northeast it is terminated by the Gallinas 
Mountains. On the south it is separated from the Hueco Basin, 
which extends southward to the Rio Grande, and from other basins 
east of the Hueco by a low indefinite divide which on the west ap- 
proaches within a few miles of the Texas State line but swings north- 
ward in the vicinity of the Jarilla Mountains. Tularosa Basin has 
a maximum length of about 150 miles, a maximum width of about 
60 miles, and an area of approximately 6,000 square miles. It is 
crossed by the one hundred and sixth meridian of longitude and by 
the thirty-third and thirty-fourth parallels of latitude, and includes 
parts of Otero, Lincoln, Dona Ana, and Socorro counties, and prob- 
ably a small part of Torrance County. 

11 



12 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The interior of the basin contains an extensive area of alkali flats 
and white gypsum sands, which lie about 4,000 feet above sea level, 
south of which is a large sandy desert that is rendered peculiarly 
monotonous by its slight relief and lack of definite drainage. The 



109° 




Figure 1. — Index map of New Mexico showing areas covered by U. S. Geological Survey 
water-supply papers and Bulletin 435. A, W. S. P. 123 ; B, W. S. P. 141 ; C, W. S. P. 
158; D, W. S. P. 188; E, W. S. P. 275; F, Bull. 435; G, W. S. P. 345-C ; H, W. S. P. 
343 (includes Tularosa Basin and adjacent areas on the south and northeast) ; I, 
W. S. P. in preparation. 

northern half of the basin includes between the mountain borders 
a plain that descends gradually from the Mesa Jumanes, 6,000 to 
7,000 feet above sea level, to the alkali flats, but is broken by many 
hills, buttes, and ridges, and by a ribbon of extremely rough lava 
that extends along its central axis for more than 40 miles. 



INTRODUCTION". 13 



NAME. 



The name Hueco Basin has been applied to the entire depres- 
sion extending from the Mesa Jumanes to Mexico, 1 but it is com- 
monly used only for the southern part; that is, the part which lies 
south of the low divide and is bordered on the east by the Hueco 
Mountains. 2 Among the early settlers the region north of the divide — 
that is, the general lowland region between the Mesa Jumanes and 
the Jarilla Mountains — was commonly called Tularosa Valley or 
Tularosa Desert, after the largest settlement and principal stream 
that it contained, and this name is still in use, although not recog- 
nized by many of the new inhabitants. It has also been used by 
G. B. Richardson 3 in his report on trans-Pecos Texas and by others 
and is indorsed by R. T. Hill. Other names that have been applied 
to the region are the Gran Quivira Valley, 4 the San Andreas Valley, 
the White Sands Plain, the Otero Basin, the Lanoria Mesa, 5 the 
Jarilla Bolson, 6 the Alamogordo Desert, 7 and the Sacramento Valley. 
The name Otero Basin was used in 1904 by C. L. Herrick, 8 and in 
more recent publications by D. T. MacDougal 9 and E. E. Free, 10 
but it is not recognized by the inhabitants. The name Sacramento 
Valley has been applied to the region by the recent settlers in the 
vicinity of Alamogordo, after the Sacramento Mountains, which lie 
just back of Alamogordo, and this name was used by L. C. Graton 
and others in a report on the ore deposits of New Mexico. 11 It has, 
however, long been appropriated for the valley of Sacramento River, 
a stream in the Sacramento Mountains that discharges southward 
into the Salt Basin of Texas, and it can not without much confusion 
be applied to the basin west of the Sacramento Mountains. As the 
name Tularosa was the first to be attached to this region by the 
people, as it has become firmly rooted by a half century of use, and 
as it is free from objections it seems desirable that it should be 
retained and given general recognition. 

1 Hill, R. T., Physical geography of the Texas region : U. S. Geol. Survey, Topographic 
Atlas, Folio No. 3, p. 9, 1900. 

2 Richardson, G. B.. U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, El Paso folio (No. 166), 1909. 

3 Richardson, G. B,, Report of a reconnaissance in trans-Pecos Texas : Univ. Texas Min. 
Survey, Bull. No. 9, p. 17, 1904. Also U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, El Paso folio (No. 
166), p. 2, 1909. 

* Harrington, M. W.. Lost rivers : Science, new ser., vol. 6, p. 265, 1885. 

5 Slichter, C. S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande valley : U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 141, p. 15, 1905. 

6 Keyes, C. R., Geology and underground-water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, 
N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 123, p. 26, 1905. 

7 McBride, T. H. 5 The Alamogordo Desert: Science, new ser., vol. 21, pp. 90-97, 1905. 

8 Lake Otero, an ancient salt lake basin in southeastern New Mexico : Am. Geologist, 
vol. 34, pp. 174-189, 1904. 

9 Bofanical features of the North American deserts : Carnegie Institute of Washington 
Pub. 99, 1908. 

10 An investigation of the Otero Basin, N. Mex., for potash salts : U. S. Dept. Agr. 
Bureau of Soils. Circular 61, 1912. 

11 Lindgren, Waldemar. Graton, L. C, and Gordon, C. H., U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. 
Paper 68, pp. 25 and 184, 1910. 



14 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX, 



CLIMATE. 

The climate of Tularosa Basin is that which is typical of the arid 
Southwest. As a rule the sky is clear and the atmosphere is dry 
and rare. Consequently in both summer and winter the days are 
generally warm and the nights cool. The region is little affected, 
especially in summer, by the great cyclonic storms that farther north 
pass periodically across the continent, but most of the rain is pro- 
duced by condensation from local ascending currents of air and 
accordingly falls in a few heavy storms in midsummer. Late in the 
autumn and early in the winter the weather is usually pleasant, but 
in these seasons there is little precipitation; the spring season is 

Average annual temperature, degrees Fahrenheit 
50 60 




Figure 2.- 



14 17 20 

Average annual rainfall, inches 

-Diagram showing general relation of temperature and rainfall to altitude in 

Tularosa Basin. 



generally dry and windy. The average annual rainfall of the low- 
land plains is only about 10 inches, and its vegetation and physio- 
graphic features have a distinctly desert aspect. The high moun- 
tains at the borders of the basin receive more precipitation, are 
covered with forests, and give rise to several small streams that 
discharge into the desert. 

The basin has a wide range in temperature, owing partly to differ- 
ences in latitude but chiefly to differences in altitude. The hottest 
section is the southern portion of the desert lowland, and the coldest 
is the high peaks of the Sierra Blanca, which rise above the timber 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE IV 




MAP OF TULAROSA BASIN AND ADJACENT COUNTRY, 1851, 



v 



INTRODUCTION. 



15 



line. The elevated northern part of the basin, which merges into 
the Mesa Jumanes, has a much cooler climate than the low southern 
plain. The highest, lowest, and average annual temperatures, as 
reported by the United States Weather Bureau for the several sta- 
tions in or near this basin, are given below. The general relations of 
temperature and rainfall to altitude in this region are shown in 
figure 2. (See also pp. 80-95.) 

Temperatures in or near Tularosa Basin (degrees Fahrenheit) 



Station. 



Altitude, 

-in feet, 

above sea 

level. 



Length 
of record, 
in years. 



Highest 
tempera- 
ture. 



Lowest 
tempera- 
ture. 



Average 
annual 
tempera- 
ture. 



Fort Stanton 
Cloudcroft. . . 
Alamogordo . 
El Paso, Tex 



6,231 
8,650 
4,338 
3,762 



105 

83 

109 

105 



51.9 
43.2 
61.0 
63.7 



HISTORY. 

When the Spaniards made their advent in New Mexico in the six- 
teenth century the Pueblo Indians, who are peaceful and industrious 
and in all respects much more civilized than the Apaches, had a 
number of villages near the upper Rio Grande, and several in the 
eastern foothills of the Manzano Mountains and in the region far- 
ther southeast, including Chilili, Tajique, Abo, Quarra (Quarac or 
Cuara), and Tabira (probably Gran Quivira, PL IV). 

During the three centuries that the Spaniards controlled New 
Mexico they were concerned chiefly with the Pueblo Indians. The 
natural course for the Spanish missionaries and adventurers coming 
from old Mexico to the Pueblo villages was by way of the Rio 
Grande, and hence the Rio Grande route was early established and 
was the main artery of travel when the region became a part of 
the United States in 1845 (PL IV). Coming from old Mexico, the 
main road reached the Rio Grande at or near El Paso and led north- 
ward along the east side of the river to the old town of Dona Ana. 
Beyond this point it left the Rio Grande, and for nearly 100 miles 
crossed the open desert that is separated from the river by the San 
Diego, Caballos, and Fra Cristobal mountains, .and from Tularosa 
Basin by the San Andreas Range. This desert made a powerful 
impression on the imagination of the early travelers, and, because of 
its dangers from lack of water and from Apache depredations, it 
came to be known as the Jornada del Muerto, or "Journey of the 
dead." 

The Spaniards extended their rule and religion to the Manzano 
villages and to Gran Quivira, where the ruins of large stone churches 
still testify to their presence, but there was little to attract them far 
into the Tularosa desert, which was even larger and more dangerous 



16 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

than the Jornada del Muerto. Consequently the early history of this 
part of New Mexico is almost a blank. 

Gran Quivira, which was a village of considerable size, as is shown 
by the extensive ruins that remain, was situated in a region which at 
present is remote from any irrigation supply and has only a small 
domestic water supply obtained from wells. Some traces remain of 
what has been described as an aqueduct leading from the Gallinas 
Mountains, but at the present time even these mountains contain no 
permanent stream of any consequence. 1 A current tradition ascribes 
the drying up of springs that are supposed to have existed at Gran 
Quivira to the volcanic eruption that produced the lava west of 
Carrizozo, but this tradition has not been authenticated ; there is no 
close connection between the two localities, and the lava appears to 
be older than the ruins. According to one authority, the only water 
supply was stored rainwater. 2 Gran Quivira, as well as Abo, Quarra, 
and other frontier pueblos were probably abandoned on account of 
Apache depredations about 1672, 3 shortly before the Pueblo revo- 
lution. 

Aside from the gold placers in the Jicarilla region, the one natural 
resource of Tularosa Basin that seems to have attracted the Mexi- 
cans in the old days was the salt found on the alkali flats. At the 
time of the Mexican cession and prior to that time, a wagon road 
led from El Paso over the desert east of the Franklin, Organ, and 
San Andreas mountains, to the alkali flats, and a northward continua- 
tion of this road is said to have extended to Manzano, in Estancia 
Valley (PL IV) . The heavy wooden wheels of the oxcarts and the 
irons with which the oxen were shod are still occasionally seen along 
this old Mexican salt trail. According to one report the salt was 
derived from Malpais Spring or Salt Creek, a few men being sent 
in advance of the main expedition to lead the water over an alkali 
flat, where it evaporated and deposited its content of salt. 

In 1846 Gen. Kearney entered New Mexico from the northeast, 
and until the completion of the two trans-continental railroads, about 
1880, New Mexico was connected with the eastern part of the United 
States by the famous Santa Fe trail. During this period Tularosa 
Basin again lay remote from the beaten paths of travel. 

In 1849 Capt. R. B. Marcy made an expedition eastward from 
Dona Ana, on the Rio Grande, to Preston, Tex.* This expedition 
apparently came through San Agustin Pass, at the north end of the 

1 Bancroft, II. II., Native races of the Pacific States of North America, vol. 4, pp. 663 
and 672. 

2 Hodge, F. W.. The language of the Piro. Quoted. in Twitchell, R. E., The leading 
facts in New Mexican history, vol. 1, pp. 231-233, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1911. 

3 Bancroft, II. II., History of Arizona and New Mexico : Works of Bancroft, vol. 17, 
p. 170, San Francisco, 1880. 

* Thirty-first Cong., 1st scss., Senate Ex. Doc. 12 and House Ex, Doc. 45. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE V 



357 







. . .mkliti} 
CFortBKus J 

Kl. l'ASO JDBJU jstaawt'""' •* 

~ — -.-. :. ^^-, "- •, 



107 



106 



T05 



MAP OF TULAROSA BASIN AND ADJACENT COUNTRY, 1859-1867. 



<? 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

Organ Mountains, bore southeastward nearly to the present State 
line, and then traveled eastward in the vicinity of the Hueco, Corun- 
das, and Guadalupe mountains, running north of the Salt Lakes of 
trans-Pecos Texas. The expedition therefore crossed only the south- 
ern part of Tularosa Basin (PL IV) . 

In December, 1853, Maj. J. H. Carleton, with a squadron of cav- 
alry, made an expedition from Albuquerque to Gran Quivira by way 
of Abo Canyon and Estancia Valley, but he did not go farther south. 
He wrote an interesting account of the region that he traversed and 
of the Gran Quivira, where extensive excavations for the hidden 
treasure had already been made. 1 

When Fort Stanton was established, about 1855, several roads 
were opened from this fort to the forts on the Rio Grande. 2 The 
road from Fort Stanton to Albuquerque led northwestward through 
Punta del Agua and thence over roads already in use, by way of Abo 
Canyon or by Way of the other ancient villages of the Manzano foot- 
hills and Tijeras Canyon. The road to Dona Ana and the forts of 
that vicinity led southward across the " Mesa," lying back of the Sierra 
Blanca, came down one of the canyons of the Sacramento Mountains, 
passed southward near the base of the Sacramento front, crossed 
the desert south of the white sands and led through San Agustin 
Pass to the Rio Grande. A road was also early constructed from Fort 
Stanton, through the vicinity of Carrizozo, across the lava bed, to 
the Rio Grande. The old salt road, in its general course, also con- 
tinued to be used to some extent (PI. V). 

About 1861 an agricultural settlement was made by a group of 
Mexicans from the Rio Grande valley. This settlement was on 
Tularosa River, about 15 miles above the present village of Tularosa. 
The location was unfavorable because of the ease with which the 
Apaches could harass the settlers from the surrounding mountains. 
Consequently in 1862 the inhabitants moved downstream and estab- 
lished the present village of Tularosa, where some of the adobe 
houses were fortified, and trouble with the Indians occurred at 
intervals until 1881. The second permanent settlement in the basin 
was made at La Luz in 1864, also by Mexicans. In the course of 
time Americans, many of them discharged soldiers from Fort Stan- 
ton, settled in these villages. The first cattle ranches were started 
in the decade between 1870 and 1880. During the early days of their 
existence there was much lawlessness and some serious encounters 
between opposing cattlemen. 

1 Carleton, Maj. J. H. Diary of an excursion to the ruins of Abo, Quarra, and Gran 
Quivira, in New Mexico : Smithsonian Institution, Ninth Ann. Rept., pp. 296-316, 1855. 

3 Bancroft, H. H., History of Arizona and New Mexico : Works of Bancroft, vol. 17, 
p. 670, San Francisco, 1889. 

48731°— WSP 343— 15 2 



18 GEOLOGY AND WATEB EESOUECES QE TULAEOSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



Placer gold mining is said to have been carried on in some of the 
gulches near Jicarilla about the middle of last century, in Baxter 
Gulch, near Whiteoaks, in the fifties and sixties, and in Dry Gulch, 
near Nogal, as early as 1865. 1 In the latter part of the seventies 
there was much prospecting in these districts, and about 1880 mining 
developments of importance were made. 

In the early days Tularosa Basin was connected by stage routes 
with both the Pecos and Rio Grande valleys. At one time a mail 
route extended from Fort Summer, on the Pecos, to Fort Stanton, 
and thence across the northern part of Tularosa Basin to the Rio 
Grande. After 1881, when the railroad between Albuquerque and 
El Paso was completed, mail routes extended from San Antonio to 
Whiteoaks, and from Las Cruces to Tularosa by way of San Agustin 
Pass and Point of Sands. 

A new epoch in the history of the basin was opened about 1898 
when the El Paso & Northeastern Railroad (now a part of the El 
Paso & Southwestern system) was built through the region. Alamo- 
gordo came into existence at this time and for some years enjoyed 
great prosperity as a railroad, lumbering, and trade center. Some- 
what later Carrizozo and the other towns along the railroad were 
started, and recently Cloudcroft has attracted attention as a summer 
resort. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 

As nearly as can be estimated from the census report, between 
7,000 and 8,000 persons lived within the drainage area of Tularosa 
Basin in 1910, and nearly an equal number lived on the high land 
that lies east of this basin and drains into the Pecos. ' The popula- 
tion of the basin averages not much over one person to the square 
mile but is very unequally distributed, nearly all of the inhabitants 
being found on the east side — in the towns along the railroad, on 
farms or ranches near the railroad, or in the mountain recesses far- 
ther east. The western part of the basin is very sparsely populated, 
and a large area at the center is entirely without inhabitants. The 
large plain north of the lava bed is also almost uninhabited. 

The railroad that traverses the basin has made the region accessible 
and has brought in a large proportion of its inhabitants, but it has 
not yet produced any substantial industrial development. 

The industries of the region are mining, lumbering, stock raising, 
agriculture, and fruit growing, none of which are at present being 
conducted on an extensive scale. 

The mineral wealth that is sufficiently important to have attracted 
prospectors and to have received a certain amount of development 
includes gold, copper, silver, lead, iron, turquoise, coal, gypsum, clay, 

1 Graton, L. C. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Taper 68, pp. 176-183, 1910. 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

Glauber's salt, and common salt. By far the most valuable product 
has been gold, the total output of which has amounted to several 
million dollars. 

Metalliferous deposits have been found on the east side of the 
basin in the Gallinas, Jicarilla, Whiteoaks, Nogal, Tularosa, and 
Jarilla districts, in all of which except the Tularosa district gold 
is the most important. In the Whiteoaks district the production up 
to 1904 was estimated at $2,860,000; in the Nogal district the total 
production may amount to $250,000; and in the Jarilla district to 
$100,000, but in none of these places has there been much activity 
in recent years. The production of the other districts has been small. 
Metalliferous deposits, including copper, lead, gold, and silver, have 
also been found and exploited to some extent at various points in the 
Organ, San Andreas, and Oscuro mountains, but except on the west 
side of the Organs very little has been produced. At Estey elaborate 
improvements were made but not much ore has been extracted. De- 
posits of iron ore have been discovered on the Chupadera Plateau 
but have not yet been developed. 1 

Coal has been mined near Capitan and Whiteoaks, and has been 
prospected in Willow Hill, near Carrizozo, in Milagro Hill, near 
Oscuro, and in the Little Burro Mountains, near Murray. Clay and 
ledge gypsum are used in a small brick and cement plant at Ancho, 
and gypsum sand has locally been used to a small extent in making 
stucco. Some developments have also been made in the deposits of 
Glauber's salt, or sodium sulphate, in " Soda Lake," west of the white 
sands. The common salt that occurs in some of the salt marshes was 
formerly gathered for local consumption but is practically unused 
at present. 

The timber in the Indian reservation and in the large national 
forests of the Sacramento Mountains, Sierra Blanca, and Jicarilla 
Mountains constitutes a valuable resource. The railroad from 
Alamogordo into the Sacramento Mountains was built chiefly to 
develop the lumbering industry, and much work was for a time done 
by the mills erected at Alamogordo. Certain complications, however, 
put a check on this industry, and very little lumber has been sawed in 
recent years. 

The extensive uncultivated desert and mountain tracts afford a 
range for cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Cattle ranches predomi- 
nate in the southern part of the region and sheep ranches in the 
northern, while a few goat ranches are found in the mountains. In 
1911 the amount of range stock was small in comparison with the 
area of the grazing lands, and a number of the old ranches were 
abandoned. It appears that the range had been overstocked and 

1 Lindgren, Waldemar, Graton, L. C, and Gordon, C. H., The ore deposits of New 
Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 68, 1910. 



20 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



that a series of dry years preceding 1911 caused a serious shortage 
in the food supply and resulted in a general retrenchment in the 
ranching business. At best a large part of the desert area affords 
only meager forage. 

Agriculture is practiced both with and without irrigation. The 
irrigation is accomplished with the water from several small streams 
that rise in the Sacramento Mountains and the Sierra Blanca, and to a 
slight extent with water pumped from wells. The irrigation farm- 
ing at Tularosa, La Luz, and Alamogordo, and in the valleys of 
Three Eivers and other mountain streams constitutes the most sub- 
stantial industry of the region. The principal crops are alfalfa 
and fruit. The alfalfa hay is generally in good demand, a part being 
required for local consumption and a part being shipped to El Paso 
and other points not far away. Peaches, apples, and other fruits 
are also shipped, but the fruit industry is capable of much develop- 
ment if fruit growers' associations are organized and more modern 
methods are introduced in other respects. Farming without irriga- 
tion is practiced with good results on the high land east of the basin, 
excellent crops of oats and other cereals being raised, but dry farm- 
ing on the lowland plain has on the whole been unsuccessful. 

The healthful climate of this region is a valuable resource and 
has attracted a considerable proportion of the present inhabitants. 
Cloudcroft, the principal summer resort, is picturesquely situated 
on the Sacramento Mountains overlooking the desert, but is con- 
veniently reached by rail. 

PURPOSE AND HISTORY OF THE INVESTIGATION. 

After the railroad was built many home seekers came into Tula- 
rosa Basin and settled on claims within a few miles of the railroad. 
The ordinary supplies of water for irrigation were already appro- 
priated, but most of the new settlers came with the expectation of 
developing their land and making a livelihood by using dry- 
farming methods, the possibilities of which in this section of the 
country have been greatly overstated by unscrupulous, poorly in- 
formed, or overzealous persons. With the general failure of dry 
farming the need of some sort of irrigation supply was strongly felt 
by-all, and the feasibility of developing new supplies by storing flood 
waters or sinking wells became the general subject of discussion. 
Many of the settlers left their claims and moved out of the country ; 
others remained because of the wholesome climate or with the ex- 
pectation of selling their farms after they had obtained titles to 
them; but still others remained with the determination to profit by 
the experience they have acquired, and to devise methods by which 
they can wrest a living from their homesteads. In 1911 many of the 
settlers were still in the basin, but the great majority were producing 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

little or nothing, and only a very few had substantial incomes from 
their farms. 

Vast tracts of arable land, potentially capable of producing crops 
of great value, are at present lying practically idle. At the same time 
waters stored underground remain unused, and large floods dis- 
charged into the desert at irregular intervals either evaporate from 
the surface or sink underground without producing more than an 
insignificant amount of useful vegetation. The availability of this 
unused supply for irrigation on the land now unproductive because 
unwatered is a problem of great and immediate importance, with 
which this paper is especially concerned. 

The investigation of the region was made by the United States 
Geological Survey and the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment 
Station acting in cooperation. The general field work was done, 
chiefly in the autumn of 1911 but partly in 1912, by O. E. Meinzer, 
assisted for several weeks by Everett Carpenter, both of the Geologi- 
cal Survey. The base and topographic map of the area south of 
Three Rivers (PL II, in pocket) was made in the winter of 1911-12 
by C. J. Ballinger, also of the Geological Survey. The analyses of 
the water and soil were made under the direction of Dr. R. F. Hare 
in the laboratories of the experiment station, Mesilla Park, N. Mex. 
The report was written by O. E. Meinzer, but Dr. Hare collaborated 
in the preparation of the parts dealing with the quality of the water 
and soil. Valuable well records- and other data were generously 
furnished by the officials of the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad 
and numerous courtesies were shown by the citizens of the region. 

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS AND LITERATURE. 

Tularosa Basin did not lie in the path of any of the large exploring 
and scientific expeditions which in the third quarter of the last 
century were sent by the United States Government to various parts 
of the West, except that of Capt. Marcy's expedition, which crossed 
the south end. Consequently very little was known, until recently, of 
the geography, geology, and water resources of this region. 

The map forming Plate IV shows the meager knowledge of the 
geography of the region that existed in 1851. The map forming 
Plate V, which was published in 1867 but probably shows more nearly 
the state of knowledge in 1859, is much more detailed and shows the 
location of a number of watering places with considerable accuracy. 
In 1867 land surveys were made by the General Land Office of 
several townships in the vicinity of the newly established settle- 
ments of Tularosa and La Luz, and in the ensuing years much of 
the basin was surveyed, an especially large number of townships 
being covered in 1882. These land plats and the data obtained by 
the railroad survey are the principal sources of information on 



22 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OP TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

which the maps of the region at present in circulation are based. 
Recently parts of the Sacramento Mountains and the Sierra Blanca 
within the national forest have been mapped by the United States 
Geological Survey. (See PI. Ill, in pocket.) 

Through the mining, military, ranching, and agricultural activi- 
ties in the region since the middle of the last century the main 
geologic features gradually became known, and since the railroad 
was constructed the region has been frequently visited by geologists, 
engineers, and botanists, and numerous brief descriptions of the basin 
have been published. All of these descriptions are based on cursory 
investigations. Some are accurate, although incomplete, and con- 
stitute valuable contributions to the knowledge of this section of 
New Mexico. Others are devoted chiefly to graphic portrayals of 
the marvels of the region interspersed with untenable hypotheses 
as to the origin of these marvels. 

In 1870 the following note by George Gibbs on Tularosa Basin 
appeared in the American Naturalist : 

Gen. Aug. V. Kantz, United States Army, writing from Fort Stanton, N. Mex., 
informs me that there is a valley of some 200 miles long and 20 wide, lying 
between the Sierra Blanca and the San Andreas and Oscuro mountains, in 
which there is no stream and only a few alkaline springs and salt lakes or 
ponds. Where the road from Fort Stanton to El Paso crosses it, about 60 miles 
south of that post, is a plain of white sand, apparently granulated gypsum, 
which has drifted into mounds 40 and 50 feet in height. Water of a strongly 
alkali character is obtained by digging a few feet, and around the edges of the 
district salt marshes exist, where in the dry seasons great quantities of almost 
pure salt may be collected. The sand is so white and the plain so extensive as 
to give the effect of snow scenery. As I do not remember to have seen a 
description of the place in print I send you this note with a specimen of the 
sand. 

In 1891 E. T. Hill and E. S. Tarr each published a brief but ac- 
curate description of the main features of the basin, and in 1900 and 
1904 C. L. Herrick published papers which are the most compre- 
hensive reports on the geology of the basin that have thus far been 
issued. 

In his paper published in 1891 Hill outlines clearly the conditions 
affecting the underground water of bolson valleys, such as Tularosa 
Basin, and calls attention to the fact that the principal supplies are 
found in the valley fill, not in the rock formations. Many of the 
other papers touch on the ground-water conditions, but are for the 
most part speculative and contain few data. Theories alluded to, 
some of them repeatedly, are (1) that an ancient river flowed south- 
ward, perhaps from Estancia Valley, through this region to the Eio 
Grande; (2) that such a stream still percolates underground; (3) 
that it can be heard " rushing " below the lava bed and has pro- 
duced sufficient underground erosion to cause the caving and conse- 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

quent broken condition of the lava; (4) that the ancient river was 
diverted from the region by the extruded lava; (5) that the volcanic 
eruption caused the drying up of springs at Gran Quivira; (6) that 
this eruption made the climate more arid; and (7) that the flat- 
bottomed arroyos on the east side of the basin were at one time occu- 
pied by rivers. 

Much valuable information was obtained through the drilling 
enterprises conducted in the last decade by the railroad company 
and by individuals and other companies. Certain investigations of 
the occurrence and quality of the underground waters have also 
been made by the experiment station, the railroad company, and the 
Alamogordo Improvement Co., and in 1912 the waters of the basin 
were examined by the United States Department of Agriculture for 
their content of potash. 

The following is an incomplete list of papers dealing in whole or 
in part with Tularosa Basin : 

Gibbs, George, Salt plains in New Mexico: Am. Naturalist, vol. 4, pp. 695- 
696, 1870. Note given on page 22. 

Harrington, M. W., Lost rivers: Science, new ser., vol. 6, pp. 265-266, 1885. 
Describes remnants of a supposed old river bed. Mentions malpais and crater. 
Mentions Indian tradition of " a year of fire, when this valley was filled with 
flames and poisonous gases." Proposes the name " Gran Quivira Valley." 

Hill, It. T., The Texas-New Mexican region: Geol. Soc. America Bull., 
vol. 3, pp. 85-100, 1891. Contains brief description of " Hueco-Organ Basin." 
Mentions white sands and malpais. Gives clear statement of underground 
water conditions. Mentions terraces, some of which are remnants of ancient 
shore lines. Brief descriptions of or references to this basin are found in 
other papers by the same author, especially in " Physical geography of the 
Texas region " : U. S. Geol. Survey Top. Atlas, Folio No. 3, 1900. 

Tarr, R. S., A recent lava flow in Ne\r Mexico : Am. Naturalist, vol. 25, pp. 
524-527, 1891. Describes the younger lava bed and mentions salt marshes, 
gypsum deposits, ancient beaches, and " well-defined valleys that extend much 
farther than the present streams succeed in going." Mentions tradition that 
volcanic eruption caused the drying up of springs at Gran Quivira, but does 
express opinion. 

Herrick, C. L., The occurrence of copper and lead in the San Andreas and 
Caballos mountains : Am. Geologist, vol. 22, pp. 285-291, 1898. Describes struc- 
ture of San Andreas Mountains. 

Herrick, O. L., The geology of the white sands of New Mexico : Univ. New 
Mexico Bull., vol. 2, No. 3, 1900; also Jour. Geology, vol. 8, pp. 112-128, 1900. 
Describes formations and structure of San Andreas Mountains and the inter- 
vening desert. Describes Mississippian limestone at Dog Canyon. Mistakes 
valley fill for Permian. Numerous springs are reported as " gushing out from 
beneath the thin sheet of black basalt," and water is said to be heard rushing 
below the malpais. 

Turner, H. W., The copper deposits of the Sierra Oscura, N. Mex. : Am. Inst. 
Min. Eng. Trans., vol. 33, pp. 678-681, 1902. Contains notes on geology of 
vicinity of Estey. Strata are considered Upper Carboniferous and probably 
in part Permian. 



24 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Herrick, C. L., Lake Otero, an ancient salt lake basin in southeastern New 
Mexico : Am. Geologist, vol. 34, 1904, pp. 174-189. Describes mountains and 
basins. Suggests that an ancient river flowed south to the Rio Grande. States 
that the basin was occupied by an ancient lake, 1,600 to 1,800 square miles in 
area. Mentions structures that may be buried beaches. Recognizes the valley 
fill and divides it into formations called Otero marls and Tularosa beds. 

Jones, F. A., New Mexico mines and minerals: Santa Fe, 1904. Describes 
Estey and other mining districts. 

Herrick, H. N., Gypsum deposits of New Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
223, pp. 98-99, 1904. Describes basin and gypsum sands. Regards valley fill 
as Permian. Mentions sound of water below the malpais, and reports a sup- 
posed " intrusive cone a few miles west of Tularosa, near which are several 
warm saline springs which have built up mounds." 

Keyes, C. R., Unconformity of Cretaceous on older rocks in central New 
Mexico: Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 18, pp. 360-363, 1904. Describes uncon- 
formity between Carboniferous and Upper Cretaceous in canyon in Chupadera 
Plateau. 

Keyes, C. R., Iron deposits of Chupadera Plateau : Eng. and Min. Jour;, vol. 
78, p. 78, 1904. Describes sandstones at least 800 feet thick resting on Car- 
boniferous with marked unconformity. Dikes are said to penetrate the Car- 
boniferous but nowhere the Cretaceous. Other papers by Keyes allude to this 
region. 

Smith, E. P., and Dominian, Leon, Notes on a trip to White Oaks, N. Mex. : 
Eng. and Min. Jour., vol. 77, p. 799, 1904. Describes strata in vicinity of White- 
oaks as consisting of shale, sandstone, and limestone, pierced by dikes and 
containing Cretaceous fossils. Successive lava flows of differing character are 
also mentioned. States that " the entire region appears to have been known 
to prospectors and miners two centuries ago, at which time it is said the 
Spaniards worked on the Jicarilla placers." Shallow wells yield unsatisfac- 
factory supplies but better water horizons are predicted at greater depths. 

McBride, T. H., The Alamogordo desert : Science, new ser., vol. 21, pp. 90-97, 
1905. Describes geology and botany of the region. Valley fill is regarded as 
Permian, and broken condition of lava is attributed in part to undermining by 
percolating ground waters. 

Tight, W. G., Bolson plains of the Southwest: Am. Geologist, vol. 36, pp. 
278-279, 1905. Contains notes on this region. Suggests that ancient river may 
have flowed south from Estancia Valley to Rio Grande. Suggests that this 
stream may still be flowing underground. 

Slichter, Charles S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande valley : 
U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 141, pp. 14-21, 1905. Describes briefly 
the "Lanoria Mesa," including lava bed, gypsum sands, and alkaline char- 
acter of the water. 

Brady, F. W., The white sands : Mines and Minerals, vol. 25, pp. 529-530, 1905. 
Describes white sands and the region in general ; associates white sands and 
dry climate with volcanic eruption. Lava is said to have diverted the assumed 
ancient river to another valley. Mentions Spanish legend that valley was " in- 
habited by prosperous people before the eruption destroyed river and brought 
about present desolation." 

Emmens, N. W., The Jones iron fields of New Mexico: Min. Mag., vol. 13, 
pp. 109-116, 1906. Describes iron ores of Chupadera Plateau, which occur 
along dike that cuts and turns up Carboniferous formations. Ore is consid- 
ered older than the dike. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 25 

Campbell, M. R., Coal in the vicinity of Fort Stanton Reservation, Lincoln 
County, N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 316, pp. 431^134, 1907. Describes fos- 
siliferous Upper Cretaceous section at Fort Stanton. 

MacDougal, D. T., Botanical features of the North American deserts : Carnegie 
Institution of Washington Pub. 99, 1908. Gives brief description of " Otero 
Basin," with special reference to the flora of the white sands. 

Lee, W. T., and Girty, G. H., The Manzano group of the Rio Grande valley, 
N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 389, 1909. Discusses the upper Pennsylva- 
nian rocks of New Mexico, and gives section in San Andreas Mountains. 

Girty, G. H., The Guadalupian fauna and new stratigraphic evidence : New 
York Acad. Sci. Annals, vol. 19, No. 6, pt. 1, pp. 135-147, 1909. Contains data 
on the geology and paleontology of the Sacramento Mountains obtained by 
Mr. Girty and G. B. Richardson. 

Lindgren, W., Graton, L. C, and Gordon, C. H., The ore deposits of New 
Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 68, 1910. Contains description of the 
geology and ore deposits of Lincoln, Otero, Socorro, and Dona Ana counties. 

Free, E. E., An investigation of the Otero Basin, N. Mex., for potash salts: 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils Circ. 61, 1912. Contains a brief statement of the 
geology of the region, gives 19 analyses of water and soluble deposits, and 
discusses the chemical problems involved. 

Hare, R. F., and Michell, M. S., Composition of some New Mexico waters : 
New Mexico Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 83, 1912. Contains 28 analyses of water 
from Tularosa Basin. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Tularosa Basin may be regarded as consisting of a southern part 
made up of a low desert plain shut in on either side by precipitous 
mountain walls, and a northern part comprising mountains, plateaus, 
and upland plains that drain southward toward the desert (PL I, 
in pocket). The surface of the upland forming the northern half 
of the basin and of the mountains bordering the desert is the bedrock 
surface of the region or that surface thinly veiled and somewhat 
modified by recently deposited sediments. Its topography is con- 
trolled by the character and structure of the rock formations, and 
was largely fashioned by the erosive work of the streams on these 
exposed formations. In the low plain lying in the southern part 
of the basin the bedrock is in general deeply buried beneath younger 
sediments, and only at a few points do rocky buttes project above 
the debris surface, the comparatively small irregularities of which 
were produced mainly by the work of water and wind in carrying 
and depositing the loose sediments. The surface of the basin is 
therefore in its origin a composite developed in part by carving and 
cutting down and in part by building up ; in other words, it is partly 
a destructional and partly a constructional surface. 

Several physiographic features of special interest are found in 
this region, among which may be mentioned lava beds, cinder cones, 



26 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

alkali flats, or salt marshes, dunes of gypsum sand, flat-bottomed 
Arroyos known as " lost rivers," and mounds associated with springs. 

MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS. 
SACRAMENTO MOUNTAINS. 

The Sacramento Mountains lie east of the southern part of Tula- 
rosa Basin, and form about 50 miles of its mountain wall (PL I, in 
pocket). They consist essentially of a great plateau, which in its 
highest parts rises more than 9,000 feet above sea level, and approxi- 
mately a mile above the desert plain to the west. This plateau 
descends gently eastward toward the Pecos Valley, forming a mod- 
erately dissected slope about 75 miles long; but on its west side it 
breaks off abruptly, the crest of the range being only a few miles 
from the edge of the desert plain. South of Alamogordo the edge of 
the plateau rises sheer above the plain, but farther north a bench of 
intermediate altitude intervenes between the plain and the high 
plateau (PL III, in pocket). South of Dog Canyon the escarpment 
retreats toward the east and the inclosing wall of the basin becomes 
low. 

The high escarpment has been vigorously attacked by the weather 
and has been sculptured into a mountain front having almost infinite 
detail and presenting a vast panorama to one viewing it from the 
desert. The nearly horizontal beds of sedimentary rock that compose 
these mountains and outcrop in the escarpment give the distinctive 
pattern for the topography developed by the stream erosion, the 
alternate hard and soft ledges producing a succession of cliffs and 
slopes that contour the salients and reentrants of the mountain front. 
In its main features the topography of this front is of very youthful 
type. The canyons are steep and short and stream erosion is work- 
ing headward at many points, gradually shifting the drainage divide 
farther east. 

The crest of the Sacramento Mountains being near the west side of 
the range, most of this extensive upland region is drained toward the 
Pecos and only a narrow belt sends its waters toward the west. In 
the southern part of the range the drainage area of Sacramento 
River, which discharges southeastward into the Salt Basin of Texas, 
intervenes between the drainage areas of the Pecos Valley and Tula- 
rosa Basin, but its capture by Grapevine Canyon, one of the short 
steep canyons on the precipitous west slope, is impending (PL III, 
in pocket). The largest of the westward flowing streams is Tula- 
rosa River, which has a normal discharge of about 20 second-feet, 
obtained chiefly from large springs, and next in size are La Luz and 
Fresnal creeks. The other canyons of the west slope are either dry 
or have very little water. 




33 
20' 






R.6E. 



^ 



V 



2v>. 







_|3S=5. Sierra Blanca Pk 



6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14- 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24- 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 



(DIAGRAM OF TOWNSHIP 



K 105°So' 



- 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE \ 



MAP OF 

A PART OF TULAEOSA BASIN 
NEW MEXICO 

SHOWING GROUND-WATER CONDITIONS IN THE VICINITY OF CARRIZOZO 
By E. Meinzer 




- 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 27 

SIERRA BLANC A. 

The Sierra Blanca, which lies north of the Sacramento Moun- 
tains and with them forms a practically uninterrupted mountain 
wall, is the loftiest and most prominent of the ranges bordering 
the basin. It culminates near its south end in Sierra Blanca Peak, 
or White Mountain, whose altitude is 12,003 feet above sea level. 
From this peak the range extends for a distance of about 15 miles, 
trending first northward and then northeastward. At a number of 
points the general level of its crest is relieved by characteristic peaks, 
the highest and most conspicuous of which, next to Sierra Blanca, 
is Nogal Peak, nearly 10,000 feet above sea level. The highest point 
of the range is above the timber line and remains snowcapped longer 
than any other peak in the region. The Sierra Blanca, like the 
Sacramento Mountains, is in a sense the western edge of a great 
plateau, and for that reason appears much more lofty from the west 
than from the east. It differs, however, from the Sacramento 
Mountains in its topographic detail, the Sacramento Mountains hav- 
ing the castellated appearance produced by the weathering of nearly 
horizontal sedimentary beds of differing hardness, and the Sierra 
Blanca having the more massive appearance and less conventional 
pattern produced by the weathering and erosion of crystalline rocks. 
Its drainage area, like that of the Sacramento Mountains, is largest 
on the east side, the only stream on its west flank being Three Rivers, 
which heads near Sierra Blanca Peak. 

TUCSON, CARRIZO, BAXTER, AND LONE MOUNTAINS. 

North of the Sierra Blanca the mountain chain is represented 
by a number of more or less isolated mountains separated by easy 
passes, beyond which is a somewhat more continuous range known 
as the Jicarilla Mountains. The principal isolated masses are Tuc- 
son, Carrizo, Baxter, and Lone mountains. (See PL I, in pocket, 
and PL VI.) Carrizo Mountain is a massive and compact ridge 
over 9,000 feet high, lying northeast of Carrizozo, from which point 
it is in full view. Tucson Mountain is a lower ridge lying nearly due 
east of Carrizozo and occupying the reentrant between the Sierra 
Blanca and Carrizo Mountain. Lone Mountain is a rather compli- 
cated mass lying south and east of Coyote station, its highest peak 
rising over 7,000 feet above sea level. Baxter Mountain is a smaller 
rock mass lying southeast of Lone Mountain and some distance 
northwest of Carrizo Mountain, from which it is separated by an 
open pass. The mining town of Whiteoaks lies at the southeast 
base of Baxter Mountain. 

Large draws yielding great quantities of flood water discharge 
through the gaps between the mountains and smaller draws head on 



28 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the west flanks of the mountains themselves, but there are no perma- 
nent streams in these ranges. One of the largest streamways is Nogal 
Arroyo, which discharges through the gap between Tucson Mountain 
and the north end of the Sierra Blanca. 

JICARILLA MOUNTAINS. 

The Jicarilla Mountains lie north of Lone Mountain in the region 
east of Ancho. They have a number of picturesque peaks, the most 
prominent of which is Jacks Peak, near the north end. The range 
is drained by several large arroyos, but has no permanent stream. 
Ancho Arroyo leads westward past the village of Ancho. 

GALLINAS MOUNTAINS. 

The Gallinas Eange is an isolated mountain mass projecting above 
the plateau country at the northeast corner of Tularosa Basin. It 
lies west of the railroad and approximately 20 miles northwest of 
the Jicarilla Mountains. It has a few springs but no permanent 
stream. Largo Arroyo drains much of its south flank and leads 
southward to the vicinity of Ancho. 

The region east of the Gallinas and north of the Jicarilla Moun- 
tains is part of an extensive plateau that is broken here and there 
by low mesas and escarpments. 

CHUPADERA PLATEAU. 

The high plain that lies in the northern part of Tularosa Basin 
and is continuous with the Mesa Jumanes is bounded on the west for 
over 30 miles by a continuous escarpment from 100 to several hun- 
dred feet high. This escarpment is the edge of a more elevated 
surface known as the Chupadera Plateau. The plateau is cut by a 
number of canyons, but most of these head near the edge and have 
not dissected the plateau far from its margin. The edge of the 
plateau is partly covered with timber, which adds to the prominence 
of the escarpment, as viewed from the nearly treeless plain to the 
east. 

Almost due west of Coyote station the monotony of the escarp- 
ment is broken by the Cerros Prietos — two volcanic cones that 
occupy a conspicuous position on the plateau near its margin. South 
of the Cerros Prietos the escarpment disappears for a few miles, but 
farther south, and extending to a short distance south of the upper 
crossing of the lava, is a hilly country that may be regarded as a 
greatly dissected southern limb of the Chupadera Plateau. This 
hilly region, which in Plates I (in pocket) and VI (p. 26) is called 
the Transmalpais Hills, attains its maximum relief a little north of 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 29 

west from Carrizozo, where hills several hundred feet high occur. 
Its eastern margin, representing the escarpment of the plateau, is 
contiguous to the west edge of the lava bed. (See Pis. I and VI.) 

Chupadera Plateau has only a few small springs, and in its entire 
extent, from north of Gran Quivira to south of the upper crossing, 
it contains only dry arroyos. 

OSCURO MOUNTAINS. 

The Oscuro Range, which is about 25 miles long, lies west of the 
southern part of Chupadera Plateau and trends nearly due north 
and south. It consists mainly of an eastward-dipping block of sedi- 
mentary beds ; its crest is near the west margin ; its east slope, partly 
determined by the dip of the rock, is long, gradual, and indefinite, 
although steeper than the east slope of the Sacramento Mountains, 
in which the dip is more gentle ; and its west slope is short, precipi- 
tous, and at intervals gashed by deep, short canyons. Since this 
range is on the west side of Tularosa Basin, its long, gentle slope is 
inclined toward the basin and its steep- slope away from it. Conse- 
quently when viewed from the basin it has a less imposing appear- 
ance than the Sacramento Mountains. Its crest is comparatively 
even but has a few projecting peaks, the highest of which is nearly 
8,000 feet above sea level. The Oscuro Range merges on the north 
with Chupadera Plateau, but is to some extent separated from the 
Transmalpais Hills by an intervening plain or open draw. At the 
south and southeast the foothills of the range are bordered by debris 
slopes that extend to the southern desert plain. The east side of the 
range, with its belt of foothills, is drained by several large draws, 
but there is no permanent stream and very few springs. 

LITTLE BURRO MOUNTAINS. 

The northern part of the Oscuro Mountains is bordered on the 
west by a desert plain, but the southern part is separated from this 
plain by a small low range known as the Little Burro Mountains. 
The Little Burro Mountains have the same trend and the same 
general structure and form as the Oscuro Mountains, their west 
slope being steep and short and their east slope relatively long and 
indefinite. The sag between these two parallel ranges is known as 
.Oscuro Gap. 

SAN ANDREAS MOUNTAINS. 

The San Andreas Mountains extend with a general north-south 
trend from the Little Burro Mountains to the Organ Range, and 
for a distance of 80 miles form the west wall of Tularosa Basin. 
The extreme north end of this range lies west of the Little Burro 



30 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Mountains and parallel with them, the sag between the two ranges 
forming Mockingbird Gap, which is the most open and most easily 
traversed pass between Tularosa Basin and the region to the west. 
For a distance of 10 miles or more from the north end the range 
trends toward the south or a little east of south, then it retreats 
toward the west and again resumes a southward, and, farther on, a 
southeastward trend. Near the protruding angle are Capitol Peak 
and Salinas Peak, the latter 9,040 feet above sea level, according to 
the Wheeler Survey, and, owing to its exposed position, second only 
to Sierra Blanca Peak in its prominence as viewed from the desert. 
The range is remarkably continuous and unbroken, and south of 
Salinas Peak it has no peaks that rise far above' the general crest 
line. The two principal notches are Lava Gap and Sulphur Canyon, 
both utilized by wagon roads. The range terminates at the south 
with San Agustin Peak, which is less than 7,000 feet above sea level. 

The San Andreas Range has one steep and one gentle slope and 
belongs to the same structural and topographic type as the Sacra- 
mento, Oscuro, and Little Burro ranges. Its steep slope, however, 
faces in the opposite direction and overlooks Tularosa Basin from 
the west, just as the steep scarp of the Sacramento Mountains over- 
looks it from the east. The dip of the rocks is on the whole greater 
in the San Andreas than in the Sacramento Mountains, and con- 
sequently the west slope of the San Andreas is shorter and less 
gentle than the east slope of the Sacramento Mountains. Within a 
compartively short distance from the crest the rocks pass beneath 
the Jornada del Muerto, a desert plain that in some respects re- 
sembles the desert plain of Tularosa Basin. The weathered and 
eroded edges of the sedimentary beds of the San Andreas Range 
have the castellated appearance that characterizes the beds in the 
Sacramento and other mountains of the same type, this topography 
being well exhibited on Capitol Peak and on other peaks in the 
same vinicity where the formations lie nearly horizontal. Farther 
south the beds dip more steeply toward the west and their exposed 
eastern edges give the crest of the range a notched appearance. 

Like most of the mountains of this region, the San Andreas Range 
has but few springs and no permanent streams, but discharges occa- 
sional floods through canyons that are normally dry. 

ORGAN MOUNTAINS. 

South of the San Andreas Range the mountain wall is continued 
by the Organ and Franklin ranges, both of which have a general 
north-south trend. The Franklin Range extends to El Paso and 
forms a part of the inclosing wall of the Hueco Basin. The gap be- 
tween the San Andreas and Organ ranges is known as San Agustin 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 31 

Pass, and is traversed by the road leading from Tularosa Basin to 
Las Cruces. The opening between the Organ and Franklin ranges 
is known as Fillmore Pass. 

The Organ Mountains have a rugged, serrate topography pro- 
duced by the weathering of the crystalline rocks, of which they are 
largely composed. The steeply projecting crags, conspicuous from 
great distances on both sides of the mountains, have by their 
resemblance to organ pipes given the name to the range. The 
highest peak is about 9,000 feet above sea level. 

JARILLA MOUNTAINS. 

The Jarilla Mountains lie at the south end of Tularosa Basin and 
are separated from both Sacramento and Organ ranges by broad 
stretches of desert lowland. They form a low range hardly 10 miles 
long. Like the other ranges in this region they * have a general 
north-south trend. They contain no permanent streams and no 
springs. 

NORTHERN PART OF INTERIOR AREA. 
GENERAL FEATURES. 

The mountains and plateaus that have been described form the 
borders of Tularosa Basin and divide the waters that are retained 
within its limits and drained toward its low interior area from the 
waters that are sent in other directions. As has been explained the 
large, relatively depressed surface that lies within the mountain 
borders and constitutes most of the area of the basin is composite in 
its origin. The northern part is essentially a rock surface that de- 
scends from about 7,000 feet above sea level at the north end, where 
it constitutes the Mesa Jumanes, overlooking Estancia Valley, down 
to only a little over 4,000 feet where the rock surface passes under a 
deep filling of rock debris. The southern part is a plain formed 
by the debris filling, and the boundary between the northern and 
southern parts must be drawn along the line where the rock surface 
plunges beneath the debris. This line extends from Three Rivers in 
a north-northwesterly direction to the lava bed, as indicated by the 
hachures in Plates I (in pocket) and VI (p. 26), thence north to a 
point some distance beyond the 7X7 ranch, thence west and south- 
west along the margin of the foothills of the Oscuro Mountains. 
North of this line the topography is mainly the expression of rock 
structure and stream erosion, although somewhat influenced by 
stream deposition; south of this line rock structure and stream 
erosion have only a minor influence on the topography. 



32 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAKOSA BASIN, N„ MEX. 
BENCHES AND ROCK ESCARPMENTS. 

The region north of this line is not a single plain, but in large 
part consists of a series of plains arranged in tiers, each forming a 
bench or terrace. The edge of each of these benches consists of a 
ledge of relatively hard rock that dips toward the bench and protects 
it from denudation, but projects as an escarpment over the plain that 
lies next below in the tier. The outcropping ledge that forms the 
rim of a bench may be almost level with the surface of that bench, as 
the ledges west and north of Carrizozo, or it may form a ridge ris- 
ing several hundred feet higher, as Milagro Hill and Willow Hill, 
with the result that the bench is more or less hemmed in on both 
sides. The escarpments have been dissected by stream erosion, but 
on the benches the irregularities of the rock surface have in many 
places been smoothed over by stream deposition. On the whole, 
however, the benches seem to represent a beveled west-sloping sur- 
face that may be correlated with rock terraces extending up the 
mountain valleys and may have been formed by planation in an 
earlier denudation cycle. 

These ridges and ledges with their accompanying benches are the 
most characteristic features of the northern half of the basin. They 
are most prominent between. Three Rivers and Carrizozo, are smaller 
but no less typical between Carrizozo and Ancho, but are nearly 
absent over the areas west of the lava beds and between the lava beds 
and Gran Quivira. South of Oscuro they have a general north-south 
trend, but farther north they generally extend in a northeastward 
direction. On the whole they orient themselves with the mountain 
blocks, both ridges and mountain ranges having a general north- 
south arrangement and, with the exception of the San Andreas 
Mountains, a prevailing easterly dip. 

One of the most typical and best developed tiers of benches and 
escarpments is in the vicinity of Oscuro. The Phillips Hills and 
Bull Gap Ridge form the exposed edge of a large bench whose dis- 
sected west-facing front, several hundred feet high, has the aspect of 
a small mountain range. Milagro Hill, a typical escarpment also 
several hundred feet high, is next in the series, overlooking this 
bench and forming the exposed edge of a second bench that lies 
farther east and at a higher level. The Godfrey Hills, with their 
steep west-facing escarpment several hundred feet high and the up- 
land on their east side, form another step in the same tier. Still 
farther back, overlooking the upland east of the Godfrey Hills and 
all of the lower benches, is the Sierra Blanca, which forms in a 
sense the last huge step in the tier. Intervening between the God- 
frey and Phillips hills are several smaller escarpments that have the 
same general structure. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 



33 



The largest ridge north of the Godfrey Hills is the Tres Cerros, 
consisting of Willow Hill, Cub Mountain, and Chaves Mountain, 
which are in a line extending south from Carrizozo and have west- 
facing fronts more than 1,000 feet high. Between these hills ancj 
the lava bed are numerous ridges of the same type, including Jakes 
Hill, the Polly Hills, Steel Hill, and smaller escarpments without 
names. 

West of Carrizozo, in the vicinity of Lower Coyote Spring, is a 
small escarpment that is hardly observable from the southeast, but 
forms a distinct northwest-facing cliff that persists to a point sev- 
eral miles north of the Bar W ranch. Between this escarpment and 



w. 



e. 



/•Igneous bed 




Shale and soft sandstone 



Shale and soft sandstone 



a 




Stratified rocks 



Granite 




Stratified rocks differing in hardness 



Figure 3. — Sections illustrating the rock structure and resulting topography of the north- 
ern part of Tularosa Basin, a, Benches and escarpments on the east side of Tularosa 
Basin; ~b, Transmalpais Hills; c, Oscuro Mountains and foothills. 

Coyote station is another typical though small escarpment that faces 
the northwest and forms a more conspicuous ridge. It is in line with 
several other small ridges farther southwest that are entirely sur- 
rounded by lava. A few ridges also* occur north of Coyote. (See 
PI. I, in pocket.) 

OTHER HILLS AND RIDGES. 

The plain between Gran Quivira and the lava beds is not greatly 
broken by ridges or scarps and only slightly dissected by arroyos. 
The hill country west of the lava beds lacks entirely the longitudinal, 
terraced arrangement. It is essentially a greatly dissected plateau 

48731°— wsp 343—15 3 



34 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

underlain by horizontal rock beds. The foothills of the Oscuro 
Mountains form parallel ridges whose steep sides face the moun- 
tains and whose gentle slopes are in the direction of the dip. They 
have the longitudinal alignment, but not the terraced arrangement of 
the features on the east side. The three types of rock structure and 
resulting types of topography are illustrated in figure 3. 

SINK HOLES. 

Large sink holes are found on the plain north of the lava beds, 
in the hill country west of the lava, and in other sections where the 
Carboniferous formation, chiefly limestone and red beds, include lay- 
ers of gypsum. (See pp. 57-60.) Good examples of such sink holes 
are the big cave, fully 50 feet deep, near the east margin of the lava 
(PL VI, p. 26) and the sink in the arroyo followed by the west road 
to Gran Quivira, about 5 miles north-northeast of the Cerros Prietos. 
(PI. I, in pocket.) Both of these sinks receive considerable drain- 
age at the present time, but many sink holes that were once functional 
in receiving flood waters and conducting them away through under- 
ground passages have long ago become choked up, and gentle de- 
pressions with no outlets have resulted. Undrained depressions have 
also been formed through the dissolving and removing of gypsum 
strata by subterranean waters and the subsequent settling of the sur- 
face. The northern part of the plain between Gran Quivira and 
the lava beds consists largely of gentle undulations with undrained 
depressions, and may be said to have a typical gj^psum-sink topogra- 
phy. (See PL XV, A, p. 48.) Red Lake, near Coyote station (PL I, 
in pocket), is a depression of this type. 

VOLCANOES AND LAVA BEDS. 
YOUNGER LAVA BED. 

The most impressive physiographic features of the northern part 
of Tularosa Basin are two lava beds and three volcanic cones, one 
cone surmounting the younger bed and two the older. The lava beds 
are commonly called "malpais," a Spanish term meaning bad land. 
The younger bed lies along the central axis of the basin, west of Car- 
rizozo, Oscuro, and Three Rivers, and is accurately shown in 
Plate VI. It extends in a south-southwesterly direction, has a length 
of 44 miles, a maximum width of 5J miles, and an area of about 120 
square miles. 

The lava, extruded at the crater shown in Plate VI and possibly 
from other vents now concealed, flowed along the axis of the basin 
and solidified in a long ribbon-like body. It does not, however, have 
an exact axial position, for the crater and northern lobe of lava lies 
slightly west of the axis, whereas the southern lode lies east of it. 



PHYSIOGKAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 35 

The statement has repeatedly been made that the lava occupies an 
ancient river channel, but this inference appears to be entirely con- 
jectural, as no traces of any ancient channel could be found either at 
the south end of the bed or farther north. In all probability the axis 
of the basin was occupied before the extrusion by a large arroyo that 
conducted the flood waters of the northern section to the southern 
desert region, and in a more humid epoch it may have been occupied 
by a permanent stream. 

The relation of the lava bed to the existing topography is obvious, 
and shows that not only the main axial depression but also the 
present hills and ravines were in existence at the time of the volcanic 
eruption. In the northern part the lava was obstructed in its flow 
by the rock ridges on the east and still more by the hills on the west. 
Where the lava came in contact with a ridge it was checked in its 
movement but flowed over the surrounding plain, either leaving the 
ridge in a peninsular reentrant, locally known by the Spanish name 
" rincon," or else completely encircling it so that it formed an island 
(PL VI). Where the lava flowed against the hills on the west side 
it sent tongues up the ravines and produced an exceedingly sinuous 
line of contact with numerous rincons occupied by hills closely 
embraced by lava. Farther south where the lava flowed out upon the 
open plain and was not hampered by hills on either side, its margin 
is more regular, but even here there are some large rincons. (See 
PL VI.) 

As is shown in Plate VI, the lava bed consists of two expanded 
lobes connected with each other by a long narrow neck. The north 
lobe and its gradual constriction toward the south can be explained 
on the assumption that the lava was derived from the crater near 
the north end and was governed in its flow by the contour of the 
surface over which it was poured. The material of the southern 
lobe was probably also derived from the crater and deployed when it 
reached the open plain, but it may have been extruded from vents 
farther south that are now concealed. 

The surface of the lava bed descends toward the south with the 
axis of the basin at an average rate of about 30 feet per mile, in 
addition to which the north lobe slopes toward the east and the south 
lobe slopes more gently toward the west. As shown in Plate VI the 
volcanic cone is situated about 2J miles from the north end of the 
lava bed and L| miles from the margin at the point of nearest ap- 
proach. The top of the cone is estimated to be about 5,700 feet above 
sea level, or a little more than 200 feet above the plain that borders 
the northern part of the lava bed. The surface rises gently from 
the margin of the lava toward the crater, but most of the ascent of 
over 200 feet occurs within a few rods of the summit. 



36 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ^)F TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The margin of the lava bed is a rugged cliff or steep slope ranging 
in height from only a few feet in localities where the adjacent plain 
has become silted up by flood waters to a maximum of nearly 50 
feet. Along a considerable part of the margin there is a well- 
defined lava terrace intermediate in height between the general 
surface of the bed and the surface of the adjacent plain. This ter- 
race, which is shown in figure 4 and Plate VIII, A, was probably 
formed by liquid lava breaking out from beneath the congealed 
crust. 

The surface of the lava bed is so rough that it defies adequate 
description. It can not be traversed for any distance by horses or 
cattle, and even man can only with great effort make his way over it. 
It contains small areas that are roughened only by minor irregulari- 
ties or by a flow structure such as is shown on the slab in Plate 
VII, B, but these smooth tracts are interrupted by abrupt pits, 
fissures, or caverns, from 5 to 20 feet deep, by chaotic heaps of broken 
slabs and sharp, angular chunks of lava, or by masses of jagged and 
ropy fragments. (See Pis. VII and VIII.) 

General surface of lava bed 





plain 


Lava terrace s^ 


Alluvial 


S 







Approximate scale 

100 50 100 FEET 

' ■ ■ * ■ ■ i i ii * ' 

Figure 4. — Profile showing marginal terrace of younger lava bed. 

The irregularities of the surface have by several writers been 
ascribed to an undermining of the bed by subterranean waters, but 
there is no evidence that undermining has taken place to any appre- 
ciable extent and it is difficult to conceive how this agency could pos- 
sibly produce the existing condition. On the west side of the lava 
there are several sink holes, into which some flood water escapes, but 
it is doubtful whether these have affected the topography of the lava 
bed in even the slightest degree. The water of Malpais Spring, the 
only spring that issues from the lava, is perfectly clear, and conse- 
quently removes no mechanical sediments. It carries out several 
tens of thousands of cubic feet of soluble earth yearly, but this would 
amount to only a small fraction of an inch beneath the entire bed 
in a century. Even if liberal allowance is made for material removed 
by the underflow that does not come to the surface, the assumed 
undermining process seems quantitatively as well as qualitatively 
inadequate. There can be little doubt that the irregularities were 
produced at the time the lava was erupted, the solidified portions 
being undermined, broken, and carried along by the fluid lava. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE VII 




A. EDGE OF YOUNGER LAVA BED, SHOWING FISSURE. 



&*$ki 




B. YOUNGER LAVA, SHOWING ROUGHNESS OF SURFACE. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE VII 




A. EDGE OF YOUNGER LAVA, SHOWING TERRACE. 




B. SINK HOLE EXTENDING BELOW GROUND-WATER LEVEL. 




C. SALT CREEK, SUPPLIED FROM GROUND-WATER SEEPAGE. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 37 

When the lava flowed down the axis of the basin and solidified in 
that position it to some extent blocked the outlets of the tributary 
watercourses, producing shallow depressions that were flooded after 
heavy rains. Duck Lake, at the north end of the lava bed, was prob- 
ably formed in this manner. By the silting up of these impounded 
areas mud flats have been produced that are treacherous in wet 
weather. In many places shallow channels have been cut along the 
margin of the lava, forming outlets for the flood waters, and on the 
west side some of the water is discharged through marginal sink 
holes. 

OLDER LAVA BED. 

The older lava bed lies northwest of the youngej and forms ap- 
proximately a right-angled triangle whose right angle is in the north- 
west corner, whose north and west sides are, respectively, about 7-J 
and 5J miles long, and whose area is somewhat less than 25 square 
miles. Its position and extent is shown approximately in Plates I 
and XVII. It forms a much less distinctive physiographic feature 
than the younger bed. 

Except for the features produced by the lava itself, the topography 
of the region was nearly the same at the time of the first eruption as 
it is at the present time. The escarpment of the plateau, the hills 
and ravines west of the lava, and the draw leading toward the south- 
west were all in existence. The two volcanic vents were at the edge 
of the plateau, and the molten material flowed from them in direc- 
tions determined by the contour of the surface. Toward the west it 
extended hardly one-half mile when its course was obstructed by 
limestone hills, the smallest of which were submerged by the molten 
flood, while the larger formed effective barriers but were partly en- 
gulfed by tongues of lava that extended up the ravines. North of 
the craters the lava was also obstructed, and in general extended less 
than a mile from the northern vent. But toward the east and south 
it was less hampered in its movement and therefore extended much 
farther. The lava flowing toward the east appears to have been 
poured over the edge of the plateau in a sort of huge cataract and 
to have deployed widely over the low plain to the east, in a few 
places forming islands out of rocky crags, which it surrounded but 
did not submerge. The lava also found a rather steep slope toward 
the south, and for a considerable distance followed a drainage line 
that led southwestward. 

The surface of the old lava bed is not nearly so rough as that of 
the younger bed. In most places it is possible to drive across it with 
a wagon, and in some localities at the lower levels the lava is cov- 
ered with sediments to such an extent that its limits can not be ascer- 
tained by surface appearances. The greater smoothness of the older 
lava surface is largely the result of changes that have taken place 



38 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

since the eruption, but it may also be due partly to original dif- 
ferences. 

Post-volcanic sedimentation and erosion have taken place at the 
margin of the bed, where the drainage is adjusting itself to the 
obstructions produced by the lava. These changes are similar to 
those found at the margin of the younger bed, but are clearly of 
greater extent. A few erosion lines have also been cut into the lava 
itself, whereas no erosion features whatever can be seen on the 
younger bed. Examples of erosion on the older bed are furnished by 
the gash on the southwest flank of the south cone and by the small 
gulches at Indian tank and Serano tank. 






Si v '■ ■"■" : 



'*& 



Lava 



i\* 



tf 



2* 



c \ndey- s 



Lava 



o 



«3 



A 






Lava 







ilp 



WJff 



Lava 



Lava 




Approximate scale 
500 



1,000 FEET 



Figure 5. — Sketch map and section of volcanic cone on the younger lava bed. 



YOUNGER VOLCANIC CONE. 



The general flatness of the younger lava bed as viewed from a 
distance is relieved near its north end by a volcanic cone, a sketch 
map and profile of which are shown in figure 5. So difficult of access 
is this cone that strange and wholly unwarranted stories in regard 
to it are current even among people that live only a few miles away. 
The conspicuous part of the volcanic eminence is a steep, sym- 
metrical, cinder-covered cone, approximately 100 feet high, with a 
crater 150 to 200 feet in diameter and depressed 20 to 35 feet below 
the rim, as shown by the profile, AB, in figure 5. This steep cone 
stands at the apex of a much larger and flatter lava cone that is at 



PHYSIOGKAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 



39 



least a mile in total diameter and hardly 100 feet in total height. 
Northeast of the crater there are several ridges or heaps of cinders 
concentric with the rim of the crater, all less than 50 feet high. 
Northwest of the crater is an area of extremely broken lava, the 
largest fissures being about 20 feet deep. The steep cinder cone is 
probably a feature formed near the close of the volcanic activity 
rather than the structure from which the bulk of the lava was 
emitted. The cinder ridges have no craters and may have been built 
of materials ejected from the cinder cone and lodged in their present 
position by the wind, although it is more probable that they were 
ejected from openings where they occur. 



w. 


_^^^_ 




E. 


w. . 


Volcanic cone of younger lava 




E. 




1 — "~ 


South cone of older lava 




5. 




w. ___——- 


North cone of older lava 




~ — E. 




North cone of older lava 

500 


i.ooo Feet 




Approximate scale 





Figure 6. — Profiles of volcanic cones. 



OLDER VOLCANIC CONES. 

The two volcanic cones of the older lava bed (the Cerros Prietos, 
shown on Pis. I, in pocket, and VI, p. 26) stand at the east edge of 
the Chupadera Plateau, about 6 miles west of the north end of the 
younger bed, and are less than a mile apart. The rim of the crater 
of the northwest cone is 250 to 300 feet above the general level of the 
plateau, nearly 1,000 feet above the plain at the southeast base of the 
older lava, and nearly 6,500 feet above sea level. The top of the 
southeast cone is 50 to 100 feet lower. The northwest cone is the 
larger of the two, but both are much larger than the vounger cone 
(fig. 6). 

The southeast cone, which stands somewhat more than 100 feet 
above the surrounding surface, is very symmetrical and exhibits a 
smooth cinder-covered surface, except in one locality on its south- 
west flank where it has been cut open by recent erosion. It is crowned 
by a saucer-shaped crater about 500 feet in diameter and 10 to 15 
feet deep. No cinder ridges or other features such as are found in 
the environs of the younger cone occur in relation to this volcano. 



40 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The northwest cone is the largest and least symmetrical of the 
three, as is shown by the profiles in figure 6. Its crater is elliptical 
in ground plan, the east- west diameter being about 600 feet and the 
north-south diameter about 1,000 feet. The rim of the crater has two 
lateral cusps that stand more than 100 feet above the bottom of the 
crater and between 200 and 300 feet above the surrounding plain. At 
the north and south ends the rim sags and is only about 50 feet above 
the bottom of the crater. The asymmetric character of the cone 
is due to a structure that appears to be the remnant of a second rim 
encircling the principal rim and suggests that the volcano may have 
had a rather complex history. This cone, like the other, has no 
cinder ridges such as are found at the cone on the younger lava. Its 
flanks are trenched in a few places by small gullies. 

SOUTHERN" PART OF INTERIOR AREA. 
GENERAL FEATURES. 

South of Three Rivers, on the east side of the basin, and south of 
the 7X7 ranch, on the west side, the rock surface passes beneath a 
great accumulation of sediments derived in geologically recent time 
from the waste of the mountains. The surface of this southern sec- 
tion, as has already been explained, was formed by the disposition 
of these sediments through the agencies of water and wind. It con- 
stitutes an elongated shallow basin with steeply sloping sides but a 
large interior area whose inclination is almost imperceptible. 

The marginal slopes are built by the floods that from time to time 
issue from the canyons of the surrounding ranges and are composed 
of the rock waste that these floods sweep along with them. The shape 
and size of such slopes depend on the character of the adjacent moun- 
tains and of the floods to which they give rise. The mountain flanks 
facing this basin are, as a rule, short and steep, and their short, steep 
canyons shed the storm waters in sudden freshets of brief duration, 
with the result that most of the debris carried out of the canyons is 
piled near their mouths in short, steep, alluvial fans. This condition 
is probably nowhere better shown than at Alamogordo, where the 
descent from the mountains to the desert is very abrupt. Larger 
and more gently sloping fans have been built north of Alamogordo 
by La Luz and Fresnal creeks, Tularosa River, Rinconada Creek, 
and Three Rivers (PL II, in pocket) and in the northwest by several 
large draws heading in the northern part of the San Andreas Range. 

The plain that lies at the foot of the alluvial slopes and occupies 
the interior of the basin is in general concave upward, but in some 
parts it is slightly convex, as in the region several miles west of 
Alamogordo, where an imperceptibly gentle swell of the surface 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 41 

shuts off the view of that city from the plain west of the swell. The 
southwestern part of the plain is the lowest, because most of the 
sediments of which the plain was built were derived from the east 
and north. 

Nearly level plains have in some places been produced by stream 
gradation, but the flatness of the extensive desert plain of Tularosa 
Basin suggests, though does not prove, that the region was for a long 
time submerged and was built up by the uniform sedimentation that 
takes place at the bottom of a bod}^ of standing water. Although 
the plain as a whole is nearly level, there are imposed on it a number 
of characteristic minor irregularities, which are described in suc- 
ceeding paragraphs. 

BUTTES. 

A few rocky buttes project above the desert plain, most of them 
near a line extending generally northward from the Jarilla Eange. 
They are the peaks of mountains that have been nearly submerged 
by sediments. They are not large, but by reason of their isolation 
they form conspicuous and well-known landmarks, the most im- 
portant being Cerrito Tularosa, about 8 miles southwest of Tularosa, 
and the group of buttes southwest of Dog Canyon which the Mexi- 
cans have long called the Tres Hermanos, or "Three Brothers" 
(Pis. I and II, in pocket). • 

FAULT SCARPS AND SHORE FEATURES. 

Among the most conspicuous and characteristic of the physio- 
graphic features of this region are a series of cliffs and terraces 
which interrupt the regularly curving profiles of the stream-built 
slopes that border the southern part of the basin (Pis. I, IX, X, and 
XI). These features are, with a few exceptions, below the 4,250-foot 
contour, but they occur at several levels between that contour and 
the desert flat. Single cliffs range from only a few feet to more than 
50 feet in height, but the maximum combined height of successive 
cliffs in the same locality may be more than 100 feet. Cliffs and 
terraces extend along the west side of the basin almost continuously 
from a point between Eitch's and Baird's ranches (T. 17 S., E. 4 E.) 
to the low divide south of Coe's ranch. Crossing this divide they 
extend along the west side of the Hueco Basin to El Paso, main- 
taining throughout about the same maximum altitude above sea 
level. Features of the same type are found on the east side of 
Tularosa Basin, extending from the vicinity of Dog Canyon south- 
ward as far as the region was examined. A cliff at a considerably 
higher level can also be traced for several miles along the slope 
bordering the Sacramento Mountains between Alamogordo and La 
Luz. 



42 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Terraces have been observed in this region by several geologists, 
and have been regarded by them as shore lines, fault scarps, or debris 
accumulations caused by floods. R. T. Hill, 1 in his paper on the 
Texas-New Mexican region, states: 

The Hueco-Organ basin [comprising the Hueco and Tularosa basins] is 
accompanied by many terrace benches around its border. These are of two 
kinds: (1) Remnants of ancient shore lines; and (2) delta deposits of debris 
brought down by present floods upon the mountains. The terraces are es- 
pecially well shown in the pass of the Rio Grande at El Paso, where on the 
northern side 7 or 8 tiers of them above the river level can be traced. 

R. S. Tarr, 2 in an article published about the same time, states : 

On the foothills of the mountains are quite distinct beaches, which, with 
other evidence, tend to prove that this is the site of Quaternary lakes. 

C. L. Herrick, 3 in his paper entitled " Lake Otero, an ancient salt 
lake basin in southeastern New Mexico," states : 

Along the gradual slope west of the southern tongue of the malpais, erosion 
has exposed what seem to be remnants of old lake benches. At no other place 
have they been observed, though 3 or 4 distinct benches border the playas. 

G. B. Richardson, in the El Paso folio, describes the benches on 
both sides of the Franklin Mountains, and regards the high-level 
benches on the east side as recent fault scarps. Ellsworth Hunting- 
ton, in a trip through the region in 1912, observed the terraces west 
of the white sands and regarded them as ancient shore lines: the 
cliff east of Alamogordo, however, he regarded as a fault scarp. 4 

In general fault scarps and ancient shore lines are so different 
from each other that there is little chance of confusing them, but 
many of the features in this region, though they have the general 
appearance of both, lack the distinctive characteristics of either to 
such an extent that it is difficult to determine their true origin. The 
fact that cliffs and terraces are found on both sides of Tularosa Basin 
gives no clue to their origin. Recent faulting, such as would be 
shown by scarps on the alluvial slopes, would be expected to occur 
along ancient fault lines, where the earth's crust is already broken. 
Such ancient fault lines are believed to exist on both -sides of the 
basin. (See pp. 74, 75.) On the other hand, if the basin were once oc- 
cupied by a lake, shore features would in all probability be formed 
on both sides. In the scarp on the slope between Alamogordo and 
La Luz displacement is indicated by the fact that bedrock, mantled 
by valley fill, occurs on what would be the upthrow side, and abuts 
against valley fill on the downthrow side. A displacement of about 
2 feet was also observed by Richardson in the unconsolidated deposits 

iGeol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 3, p. 90. 1891. 

2 A recent lava flow in New Mexico : Am. Naturalist, vol. 25, p. 524, 1891. 

8 Am. Geologist, vol. ?>4, p. 185, 1904. 

4 Oral statement to author. 



s 




PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 43 

at El Paso. On the other hand, some of the features on the west side 
of the basin and also southeast of Dog Canyon suggest a lake origin. 

The cliffs and terraces, although maintaining the same general 
altitude throughout the region and broadly following the sinuosities 
of the contours, lack for the most part the precise horizontal lines 
which are so distinctive of ancient strands. But this condition is not 
absolute disproof of a lake origin. Where the waves of a lake form 
a cliff the base of the cliff and the terrace at the base are virtually 
horizontal, but the upper edge of the cliff is of course an irregular 
line. When the lake subsides the high land back of the cliff is eroded 
and the eroded material is deposited over the terrace in alluvial 
cones. By this process the base of the cliff also becomes an irregular 
line. At the same time the terrace is largely destroyed by both depo- 
sition and erosion. 

The cliffs and terraces are not accompanied by well-preserved 
beach ridges, bars, or spits, but in a few places there are features 
that appear to have been formed by the waves. Southeast of Globe 
Spring there is a large alluvial fan that is contoured by the terrace 
features. On the edge of at least one of these terraces gravel hills 
are conspicuous from the upslope as well as the downslope side of 
the fan, suggesting remnants of a large but greatly eroded beach ridge. 
Along the divide south of Coe's ranch large but indistinct ridges 
somewhat resembling beach ridges swing across the plain. Along 
the road about 3 miles southeast of Hitch's ranch a gravelly ridge 
having the appearance of a beach ridge runs parallel with the edge 
of the alkali flat. A somewhat similar feature was observed several 
miles southeast of Cerrito Tularosa. Suggestions of a beach are also 
seen on the large alluvial fan 10 miles southeast of Dog Canyon 
near the road to Lee's ranch. Some indistinct terraces were found 
around the Jarilla Mountains and the isolated buttes, but they are 
nowhere well developed, although the isolation of these projecting 
land masses should have subjected them to especially strong wave 
action. The relatively rapid descent of the plain in a belt midway 
between the railroad and the white sands, and a similar rapid descent 
near the alkali flats on the west side of the basin south of Ritch's 
ranch, are features such as are produced by rapid sedimentation near 
the shore of a lake or sea. A more "pronounced drop in the surface 
of the plain is traceable along a line that extends through the Lo- 
mitas, Gray, and Chosa ranches. All these features are, however, 
indefinite, and it is difficult to conceive that a lake which stood high 
enough to have formed them should have left so few other shore 
features. 

Extensive observations in connection with the present investiga- 
tion, though not producing conclusive evidence, have led to the belief 
that the prominent cliff and terrace features were caused, at least for 



44 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



z 
ol 



S £1 

in (of 



-a 



KOOO 

UJ o o o 
C *• * <tf 



the most part, by faulting, and that shore features 
were poorly developed or largely destroyed by post- 
lacustrine changes. The best evidences of the exist- 
ence of an ancient lake are not physiographic. 

ALKALI FLATS. 

Lying within the low desert area, principally near 
its west margin, are several large alkali flats and an 
indefinite number of smaller ones, together covering 
an area of about 165 square miles (PI. II, in pocket, 
and fig. 7). 

The most characteristic of these flats constitute defi- 
nite topographic features. They are not indistinct 
sags in the surface of the plain but sharply defined 
basins with nearly level floors 10 to 30 feet below the 
general surface of the plain and in some localities 30 
to 50 feet below the surface of adjacent dunes. In 
many places the descent from the plain or dune sur- 
face to the flat is a sheer cliff but in others it is less 
abrupt. 

These depressions could not have been formed by 
stream erosion for they have no outlets, and they are 
clearly not sink holes nor ancient shore features. 
That they were formed by wind erosion is definitely 
proved by the fact that the excavated material gener- 
ally lies in dunes on the plain immediately east or 
northeast of the depression from which it was obvi- 
ously derived, the material having been borne in the 
direction of the prevailing storm winds, which blow 
from west and southwest. In some places the even 
surface of the flats is interrupted by mesas with 
comparatively flat tops and steep sides, which are 
remnants of the original plain not yet removed by the 
wind. 

Some of the smaller flats lie in shallow and indefi- 
nite sags of the general surface, but even these are 
accompanied on their east or northeast sides by wind- 
built ridges, which show that they are of eolian origin. 

The floors of the flats are not normally covered with 
water, and in many places they are so firm that a 
wagon can be driven over them, even where no road 
has been made. However, they stand only slightly 
above the water table, and the ground beneath them is 
nearly everywhere moist from the upward seepage of 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE XI 








£. 



CLIFF AND TERRACE FEATURES NEAR SAN AGUSTIN PASS. 



s 




PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 45 

the ground waters. Ordinarily wind erosion does not develop flat 
surfaces, but the flatness of these depressions is manifestly caused by 
the water table, which limits the depth to which the wind can erode. 
The floors of the flats are not entirely level, but slope very gently, 
just as the water table might be expected to slope. From the north to 
the south end of the system of large flats, a distance of somewhat less 
than 30 miles, the surface descends a little over 100 feet. A line of 
levels carried across the flat in the vicinity of Baird's ranch showed a 
difference in level of only 3 feet in the first 4 or 5 miles east of the 
west margin. 

Alkali flats occupying well-defined depressions have been observed 
in the Estancia, Encino, and Pinos Wells basins in central New 
Mexico 1 and also in certain parts of the Great Plains ; for example, 
in the shallow-water belt in the vicinity of Portales, N. Mex. They 
are not, however, characteristic of the closed basins of most parts of 
the arid West. The great development of these depressions in cer- 
tain New Mexico basins is probably related to the gypseous character 
of the deposits in these basins and their consequent susceptibility to 
wind erosion. The absence of the depression features in many other 
basins is probably due to the presence of heavy clay that is not 
readily attacked by the wind. 

The depressions of this region, like those in other parts of New 
Mexico, tend to develop an elongated form with the long axis ex- 
tending approximately north and south, at right angles to the direc- 
tion of most effective winds. 

DUNES. 

In Tularosa Basin, as in other arid regions, the wind has been 
at work over wide areas, eroding, transporting, and depositing ma- 
terials, and thereby producing physiographic features that are dis- 
tinctive of the activity of this agency. The chief material handled 
by the wind in most localities is quartz sand, but in this region 
gypsum is very abundant at the surface and gypsum sand is conse- 
quently more important than quartz sand as a wind-borne material. 
(See Pis. XII, XIII, and XIV, B.) 

The most conspicuous area of wind deposits is a tract of freshly 
deposited gypsum sands, 270 square miles in extent, lying on the east 
side of the large alkali flat (PL II, in pocket). The unique feature 
of this area is not its topography but the unusual material compos- 
ing the dunes and the resulting snow-white appearance of a large 
part of the area. The irregular, hummocky, ripple-marked surface 
resembles so closely the surface of an ordinary dune area in which 
quartz sand is the. material handled by the wind that detailed de- 
scription is not necessary. The gypsum sand was deposited on the 

1 Geology and water resources of Estancia Valley, N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water- 
Supply Paper 275, pp. 25, 78, and 82, 1911. 



46 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES- OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



original surface of the desert plain and consequently the general level 
of the dune area is somewhat higher than that of the surrounding 
plain where little or no gypsum was deposited by the wind. The 
largest dunes rise over 50 feet above the plain level, but within the 
dune area there are low, swampy, tracts that may represent the 
original surface of the plain or may have been developed by the 
erosion of that surface by the wind. 

A definite relation exists between the white sands and the large 
alkali flat, which is floored and walled with crystallized gypsum. 
The white sands lie on the east side of the flat (PL II, in pocket) and 
are composed of the broken gypsum crystals wrested from it by the 
storm winds. The east margin of the white sands is in most places 
sharply defined, the white, granular gypsum deposits ending abruptly 
like a snow bank on its leeward side. The sands, still driven by the 
storm winds, are gradually shifting eastward and encroaching on the 
plain. Roads that formerly followed the margin of the dune area 
are now covered with gypsum sands and new roads have been started 
farther east. In some places the margin is reported to have advanced 
about a mile in 20 years. 1 

The area of fresh gypsum-sand dunes has rather definite limits, 
as shown in Plate II, but the entire area that has been more or less 
affected by the drifting of gypsum sands and other gypseous ma- 
terial extends much farther and has less distinct boundaries. It 
reaches southward in a wedge-shaped area to a point a few miles 
south of Parker Lake, eastward within a short distance of Ala- 
mogordo, and northward (outside of the quartz-sand area) about to 
the lava bed. Within this larger area the surface is nearly level, 
but includes numerous low ridges and shallow depressions, some of 
them obviously formed by the wind but others hardly discernible 
or not readily differentiated from the sink holes. This large region 
is covered with desert vegetation and is not at present subjected to 
vigorous wind work. Whether its topography represents an older 
epoch of dune formation or merely a less vigorous phase of wind 
activity is not evident. 

Xorth of the white sands the dune area is continued as a belt of 
quartz sand which covers more than 100 square miles and lies east and 
northeast of the northern alkali flats (PI. II, in pocket). As in the 
white sands, the east margin is sharply marked but the west margin 
is indefinite, the entire region east of the flats being more or less 
affected by wind work. 

Low sand dunes of a more reddish hue are found over a wide area 
in the southern part of the basin. They extend a number of miles 

1 MacDougal. D. T., Botanical features of the North American deserts : Carnegie Insti- 
tution of Washington Pub. 99, 1908. 



1 1 





CD 



I. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVE\ 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE XIV 




A. BANK OF MID-SLOPE ARROYO, SHOWING STRATIFIED GYPSUM UNDERLAIN BY RED ADOBE. 




B. GYPSUM-SAND AREA 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 47 

north, west, and east of the Jarilla Mountains and south to the 
Texas line. A large part of this area has no definite drainage, but 
contains numerous small arroyos that maintain themselves for only 
short distances among the drifting sand and end in shallow depres- 
sions often called " lakes." This undrained belt constitutes the indefi- 
nite divide between the Tularosa and Hueco basins. 

SINK HOLES. 

Sink holes are found not only in the areas underlain by gypsiferous 
bed rock but also in the parts of the desert plain underlain by re- 
cently deposited gypsum. They are especially abundant in a belt 
several miles wide lying east of the principal dune area, some of 
the largest sink holes of this type being found in the vicinity of 
Cerrito Tularosa (PL XV, C). They occur most commonly along 
the margins of the arroyos (fig. 43), and range in size from tiny 
openings resembling gopher holes to caverns at least 10 feet in diam- 
eter at the top. Even the small holes will admit large quantities of 
flood water. The water discharged from Shoemaker's flowing well 
(PI. XVIII, B, p. 158) is drained into one of these sinks. 

Several water holes have been formed apparently by the sinking 
of the surface beneath the present ground-water level, examples of 
which are the pond situated a little over 2 miles southwest of Shoe- 
maker's flowing well- and in the same flat-bottomed arroyo as that 
well (PI. VIII, B), the pond at a ranch about \\ miles north of the 
same well (NE. \ sec. 35, T. 14 S., R. 8 E.), and several water holes 
observed in the arro}^o in sec. 9, T. 15 S., R. 9 E. The pond south- 
west of the flowing well is fully 400 feet long and stands about 
at a level with the arroyo. The pond at the ranch north of the 
flowing well is somewhat smaller but occupies a circular depression 
about 10 feet deep. The ground water fills the bottom of this de- 
pression and drains southwestward through a rather definite under- 
ground channel that has caved in at several places and forms a second 
pond before the water finally disappears below the surface. 

Small mounds occur on the southwest sides of some of the sink 
holes that are filled with water, the material of which they are built 
apparently having been brought by the wind and captured by the 
vegetation and moist soil on the windward sides, whereas but little 
wind-borne material reached the opposite sides. 

The belt having gypseous soil and abundant sink holes is character- 
ized, at least in many localities, by a gently undulating topography 
and shallow undrained depressions. These irregularities are prob- 
ably chiefly of sink-hole origin although some of them are no doubt 
due to wind. Since both solution and wind work are related to the 
gypseous character of the soil they are largely coextensive, and in 



48 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

many places it is therefore difficult to differentiate between the fea- 
tures produced by these very different agencies. This difficulty is 
increased by the fact that the texture of the gypseous material, which 
might give a clue to its origin, is greatly altered by the solution and 
reprecipitation that is constantly taking place near the surface. 

ARROYOS. 

With respect to their origin the arroyos that trench the steam-built 
slopes and desert plain belong to four groups, namely, (1) the arroyos 
that dissect the portions of the slopes above the cliff and terrace 
features (pp. 41-44) ; (2) the arroyos in the upper parts of the slopes 
not interrupted by cliffs; (3) the arroyos on the east side of the basin 
extending from the foot of the steep slopes about to the white sands ; 
and (4) the arroyos in the lowest parts of the plain that lead directly 
into the alkali flats. 

The cliffs that interrupt the regular profiles of the stream-built 
slopes have thrown out of adjustment the streamways that descend 
from the mountains to the desert plain. Consequently, the flood 
waters discharged from the mountain canyons have eroded the slopes 
above the cliffs, but have formed alluvial cones at the bases of these 
cliffs. 

Even where the slopes are not broken by cliffs the upper parts are 
as a rule trenched by the large arroyos that cross them. Much of 
the high-level erosion is relatively old and is probably due to the 
fact that the large canyons emerge from the mountains at lower 
levels than the small ones, and also that all of the canyons have been 
progressively cut down and therefore discharge at lower levels than 
they did in the past. 1 Some of the trenches that cross the upper 
slopes are, however, of a different character, having practically 
vertical walls and all the characteristics of extreme youth. Some 
of them have been cut since the white men came into the region — a 
few possibly by a single flood — and they are probably to be attributed, 
at least in part, to changes made by man. A good example of the 
recently cut arroyos is the precipitous gorge that leads from the 
mouths of Fresnal and La Luz creeks, and is crossed by the road 
between Alamogordo and La Luz and also by the road between La 
Luz and Cloudcroft. 

When followed downstream the high-level gullies and arroyos 
gradually become more shallow and eventually disappear altogether, 
their flood waters either spreading over the slopes or following ill- 
defined streamways. But on the east side of the basin, in town- 
ships 14 to 17, there is an entirely different group of arroyos which 
begin several miles farther down the grade, where the distinct slope 

1 Geology and water resources of Sulphur Spring Valley, Arizona : U. S. Geol. Survey 
W:iter-Supply Papor 820, pp. 20 and SO and flgs. 3 and 4, 1913. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE XV 




A. SINK HOLES IN AREA UNDERLAIN BY PENNSYLVANIAN ROCKS. 




B. STRATIFIED GYPSUM IN BANK OF ALKALI FLAT. 









mm 




. 1 



■ 



£&*■<« 







C. SINK HOLE IN INTERIOR GYPSUM PLAIN. 



s> 



PHYSIOGKAPHY AND DEAINAGE. 



49 



merges into the gently inclined desert plain. They are shallow 
where they begin, but increase gradually in depth for several miles 
downstream until their bottoms are from i25 feet to nearly 50 feet 
below the general upland level, beyond which they gradually become 
more shallow. The arroyos farthest north extend to the dune area, 
but the southernmost disappear completely before they reach the 
sands. (See PL II, in pocket, and fig. 8.) Some of the northerly 
arroyos persevere through the sands for several miles, but others are 
definitely blocked and have miniature strands formed in the soft 
gypseous materials by the impounded flood waters. These arroyos 
are characterized by their flat bottoms, great width, and general lack 
of features showing recent erosion. The fact that some of them begin 



Horizontal scale 
Oi 2 3 4 5 Miles 



■ ■ I ■ I 



Altitude, feet above sea level 
4,500 



White r -oeI^- 
sands <22^£Troj 




SW. c • NE. 

Figure 8. — Profiles of mid-slope arroyos and of the plain which they dissect, a, Arroyo 
south of Cerrito Tularosa ; &, Salt Spring to Kearney ; c, northeastward from Point of 
Sands. 



rather abruptly as small gullies seems to indicate that they were 
formed by headward erosion. 

The peculiar feature of these arroyos, differentiating them from 
nearly all other arroyos in desert basins that have been described, is 
that they are found only within certain vertical limits on the debris 
slope and that, where not obstructed ■ by dune sands, they fade out 
completely in both directions. It is popularly believed that they 
were formed at a time when the climate was more humid, and that 
they were once occupied by broad streams. Although their origin is 
probably associated with climatic changes, the simple assumption of 
greater run-off does not adequately account for the peculiarities of 
these arroyos, and there is no reason for believing that they were 
ever occupied by any large permanent streams, 

48731°— wsp 343—15 4 



50 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The slopes of a debris-filled basin that are built by streams from 
the mountains form a grade that is delicately adjusted to these 
streams. As a rule the grade is steepest near the mountain border 
and diminishes gradually down the slope until in the interior of the 
basin the surface is nearly level. The profile of a stream-built slope 
is therefore normally concave upward. It is significant that in the 
belt traversed by the arroyos under discussion the regular con- 
cavity of this profile is interrupted, and that in some parts of the belt 
an actual upward convexity exists. This convexity is imperfectly 
shown by figure 8, but can be better observed in the field. For 
example, Alamogordo is not in view from the plain several miles 
west of that town, because of the upward swell of the intervening 
surface in the zone affected by the arroyos. This gentle swell could 
have been created by a slight deformation of the underlying beds or 
by aggradation resulting from some climatic change. Such swells 
are commonly produced in basins of this kind when they are occupied 
by lakes. If a slope that is graded by stream action, as described 
above, becomes partly submerged, the adjustment represented by the 
grade is disturbed, and a slope with a different profile is gradually 
developed. A large amount of sediment is likely to be deposited near 
the shores of the lake. If the tributary streams occupy definite 
valleys deltas will be built, but if the floods spread over the slopes 
in sheets, sedimentation will take place all along the shore. After 
the lake disappears the ancient shore line forms a swell or upward 
convexity in the profile of the slope, which is subjected to erosion 
and in time becomes dissected by gullies that develop headward. 
Small gullies of this type have been observed in other ancient-lake 
basins; for example, in Sulphur Spring Valley, Ariz., 1 but broad, 
well-developed arroyos, such as the mid-slope arroyos of Tularosa 
Basin, have not hitherto been ascribed to such an origin. Other pos- 
sible explantions of the convexity are deposition by floods (quoted 
from Hill on p 42) or ancient eolian deposition. 

These arroyos are obviously related to the largest streams in the 
basin, namely, Tularosa Eiver and Fresnal and La Luz creeks (PI. I, 
in pocket). There is probably a double reason for this relation. 
First, these large streams furnished the greatest amount of debris for 
aggradation ; then, when the conditions changed, they furnished the 
greatest amount of water for the erosion of the aggraded swell and 
the reestablishment of the original grade. The great maturity of 
these arroyos as compared with the postlacustrine gullies of other 
basins, such as -Sulphur Spring Valley, may be due to the large 
amounts of storm water discharged through them or to their greater 
antiquity. 

1 Geology and water resources of Sulphur Spring Valley, Arizona : U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-Supply Paper 320, p. 42, 1913. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 51 

The low-level arroyos are gullies or small canyons cut into the 
plain and draining into the alkali-flat depressions, the grade of their 
streamways being accordant with the floors of these depressions. 
They have evidently developed since the depressions were excavated 
by the wind, mainly through headward erosion, and their depth is 
regulated by the depth of these depressions. Their youth is shown 
by their steep, freshly cut walls and by the short distance that most 
of them have been cut back from the margins of the alkali flats. 
The valley of Salt Creek belongs to this group, but is much larger 
and longer than any of the other arroyos. In the lower few miles 
of its course it has a flat bottom one-fourth mile or more in width 
and precipitous walls about 40 feet in maximum height of gypsum 
and clay of pure white and delicate shades of red. Although this 
canyon is essentially the product of stream erosion, a part of the 
excavating work was probably done by the wind in a manner similar 
to that in which the alkali-flat depressions were formed, wind work 
being indicated by certain irregularities in the width of the canyon, 
and by wind deposits on the east side. 

Since the alkali flats practically coincide with the water table, the 
streamways of the tributary arroyos are also near the water level. 
In the vicinity of Salt Creek the slope of the water table is such 
that the creek has cut down to and tapped the underground waters, 
thereby becoming a permanent stream. In November, 1911, the flow 
of the creek at a point 10 miles above its mouth (NW. J sec. 15, T. 
12 S., R. 6 E.) was estimated at one-half second-foot, while at a 
point 2 miles above its mouth (sec. 20, T. 13 S., R. 6 E.) it had prac- 
tically no surface flow, though there was some seepage through the 
sand in the bed of the creek. 

MEADOW SOUTH OF THE WHITE SANDS. 

A narrow strip of level meadow land extends almost without inter- 
ruption from the south end of the large alkali flat in the vicinity 
of Lucero's ranches to the divide south of Coe's home ranch, near 
the Texas line (Pis. I and II, in pocket). This meadow is bordered 
on the west by the steep stream-built slope of the San Andreas and 
Organ mountains and on the east by the hummocky, wind-blown 
gypsum and red-sands areas. It has so much of the appearance of 
an ancient river bed that it has been regarded by many persons as 
the former outlet of Tularosa Basin, but the topography of the 
region probably makes this explanation untenable. The meadow 
has at present no southward grade. In some localities the flood 
waters drain in one direction and in others in the opposite direction, 
and the lowest point on the Texas line is about 100 feet higher than 
the meadow in the vicinity of Lucero's ranches, 50 miles farther 



52 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES T>F TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

north. Moreover, the meadow is definitely interrupted at the divide 
south of Coe's ranch. It may possibly represent the bed of a stream 
that (lowed northward; more probably it is a feature developed in 
large part by the wind. 



FEATURES PRODUCED BY SPRINGS. 



Mounds built by springs are found over an area several square 
miles in extent on the plain a short distance west of the southern 

part of the lava bed, in T. 10 S., R, 6 
E. (See PL XVI.) Twenty-nine of 
these mounds are shown on the map 
forming figure 9, and a few other poorly 
preserved ones probably exist in the 
region adjacent to the area covered by 
the map. A typical mound of this 
group forms a low, flat, symmetrical 
dome at the top of which is a shallow, 
circular depression that may contain 
water. The largest of the mounds are 
fully 600 feet in diameter and 15 to 20 
feet in height, and have " craters " 
ranging in diameter from 50 to 125 
feet. 

The mounds are composed of a felt- 
work of vegetable fibers partly con- 
verted into peat, with interstitial black 
silt, gray gypsum, and other sub- 
stances, the whole having a mottled, 
black and gray appearance. The veg- 
etable matter was produced and partly 
protected from decay by the spring 
water; the sandy sediments were 
brought by the wind, stopped by the 
growing vegetation, and secured by 
the moisture of the springs from fur- 
ther wind attack; the gypsum was in 
part precipitated from the water and 
in part deposited by the wind. As a mound developed it formed a 
sort of vertical tube that was relatively impervious at the outside and 
porous at the center, with the result that the water rose to its apex 
and its growth tended to continue. 

There are two kinds of mounds — those that at present have an 
overflow or at least a central pool of living water, and those that are 
no longer water bearing. The extinct mounds outnumber the active 



1*\ 


*t* 


3 > 


^. 


\ * i 






A-'' 

(fit' 




\ * 


•*• ——'***« \ 5 


~~~ — -„ W,6 ,*' 


■**-- V*** 


7 ^ #9 


# / 1U 


14- / J\ 


! * 


.5* / *l* 


,6 V * * 


/ 17 13 


# 


18 / * a 


/ ' 9 


$1 


Jt,' 


.0/ 


V 


/ 

* 


•Jo ° 

20 * 


I #22 


24*/ *23 


*; 


25 1 




i 
ft' 




26 • 

p 


* 


i 
i 


Water-bearing mound 


[ *27 


* 


\ 


Extinct mound 


\ * 




\ 





Vz 



I Mile 



FIGURE 9. — Map showing Mound 
Springs in T. 10 S., R. 6 E. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE XVI 





B. 



MOUND SPRINGS. 



<? 



GEOLOGY. 



53 



ones in the ratio of about 3 to 1. They are on an average larger 
although flatter and less conspicuous than the active mounds. The 
materials of which they are composed have become firmer and more 
compact, the gypsum forming hard ledges at the top. Through the 
oxidation of these materials, no longer protected by water, their 
color has been changed from blue-black, which characterizes the 
water-bearing mounds, to a dull red that does not differ greatly from 
the hue of the rest of the desert. Apparently a mound grows in the 
manner described until its water level is some distance above the 
surface of the surrounding plain, but when it reaches a height above 
which the water will not rise by hydrostatic pressure its develop- 
ment ceases and the pool of water is ceiled by the same process which 
built the mound. Eventually the water may break out at a lower 
level in the adjacent plain, with the result that the old mound is 
drained and the development of a new mound is begun. 

The fact that the water rises in the mounds considerably above the 
level of the plain shows that it is under artesian pressure and indi- 
cates that it comes from a comparatively deep source. 

The following tables give approximate data in regard to several 
of the mounds: 

Approximate data relative to several mounds of the Mound Springs group. 



Number 
on map. 


Diameter. 


Height. 


Presence of water 
at the surface. 


Height of 
water level 
above plain. 


Discharge. 


2 


Feet. 


Feet. 
8 
18 
13 


Water 


Feet. 

3 
10 


None. 


7 


600 
400 
700 
600 


do 


Several gallons per minute. 


8 


No water 




15 


do 






16 




do 






17 




Water 




None. 


18 






do 






19 
20 


250 
250 
250 
500 
600 


13 
10 

6 
16 


do 

do 


5 
6 
3 


Do. 

Do. 


25 


do 


1 gallon per minute. 


26 


No water 




27 


do 

















GEOLOGY. 



GENERAL FEATURES. 



The sedimentary formations of Tularosa Basin belong chiefly to 
the Carboniferous, Cretaceous, and Quaternary systems, but Paleo- 
zoic sedimentary rocks older than the Carboniferous may be repre- 
sented, and sedimentary rocks of Triassic, Jurassic, and Tertiary age 
may be present. The igneous rocks are chiefly of pre- Carboniferous 
(probably pre-Cambrian), Tertiary, and Quaternary age, but there 
may also be igneous rocks that were erupted after the Carboniferous 
period but before the Cretaceous sediments were laid down and also 
near the close of the Cretaceous period. 



54 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



SYSTEM 



SERIES 



GROUP OR 
FORMATION 



Younger lava = 



Older lava 



< 

p 



W/M/M, \ 



Valley 
fill 



Unconformity 

Intrusive 
rocks 



£^= Alternating shales and sandstones, with beds of coal 



UNDETERMINED 



Unconformityi?) 




Manzano 
group 



Magdalena 
group 



T~~n- 



Vesicular basalt,known as the " malpafs " 
Vesicular basalt, known as the "old malpais" 
-Wind-blown quartz sand and. gypsum sand and dust 
Gypsum 



Red clay,sand,and gravel 



Rhyolites, syenites, quartz diorites,and augite kersantites 



Dark shale 

Sandstone 

Variegated shale, with beds of sandstone and limestone 



Limestone, gypsum, sandstone, and shale 



Red sandstone, with shale and limestone 



Gray limestone, with sandstone, shale, and thin beds of coal 



Limestone 

Thin brown basal conglomerate 



MISSIS- 
SIPPIAN 



Unconformity 



O 

tc ^ 

UJ c 

u. _>. « 

2 -8 £ 

m o it 

< ' — ' <u 
UJ 



Granite and possibly other crystalline rocks 



1,000 

I I ■ 





I I ■ t I 



APPROXIMATE SCALE 
1,000 2,000 3,000 



^,000 



5,000 FEET 
I 



Figure 10. — Columnar section of formations in Tularosa Basin (based on reconnaissance 

survey). 



Q 

Z 
LjJ 
(3 
Id 

-J 



U 
O 

a: 

>• 
z 



"J 73 




co 

< 
m 

< 
co 
O 
<r 
< 
-i 

I- 
U_ 

O 
< 

2E 

O 

o 
o 

_l 
o 

UJ 

o 

UJ 

o 

z 
< 

CO 

CO 

< 

z 
z 
o 
o 

UJ 

cc 



<-> 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE XVII 



LEGEND 

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 




RECONNAISSANCE GEOLOGIC MAP OF TULAROSA BASIN. 



s 



GEOLOGY. 55 

On the crystalline basement, which is probably pre-Cambrian, 
rests a thick body of limestone, sandstone, shale, and gypsum, which 
is chiefly or wholly of Carboniferous age and which forms the bulk 
of the Sacramento, San Andreas, Little Burro, and Oscuro ranges, 
and underlies most of the northern part of the basin. Lying strati- 
graphically above the Carboniferous rocks, and outcropping in the 
ridges and mountains east of the lava beds between Three Rivers and 
Whiteoaks, are alternating beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone, 
with a few seams of coal, belonging chiefly or wholly to the Cretace- 
ous system. Intruded into both Carboniferous and Cretaceous strata, 
but found in greatest abundance in the northeastern quarter of the 
basin in association with the Cretaceous strata, are igneous rocks of 
differing composition and texture. Resting on the older formations 
and filling the southern part of the basin to great depths are poorly 
consolidated deposits of clay, sand, gravel, gypsum, and other mate- 
rials, chiefly of Quaternary, but probably in part of Tertiary age. 
Spread over the surface in certain tracts of the northern part of the 
basin and resting in part on the Quaternary sediments is the basalt 
of the two lava beds. The character, thickness, and age of these 
formations are shown in the columnar section, figure 10, and their 
areal distribution and relations are shown in the map forming Plate 
XVII. The geology of the region has not been studied in detail, 
and both the section and the map are therefore only approximately 
correct. 

PRE-CARBONIFEROUS GRANITE. 

Crystalline rocks outcrop below the sedimentary beds in a prac- 
tically uninterrupted band along the lower half of the east side of 
the San Andreas Mountains from Mockingbird Gap to the south 
end of the range, in a narrow band at the west base of the northern 
part of the Little Burro Mountains, and along the lower part of the 
west face of the Oscuro Mountains except near their south end 
where the overlying beds plunge beneath desert sediments. In 
some places they form more than one-half of the lofty Oscuro es- 
carpment. Wherever the basal crystalline rocks of these mountains 
were observed they consist of massive reddish granite and are 
separated by an erosion surface from the overlying sedimentary 
beds. In the Franklin Mountains, situated south of Tularosa Basin 
(PL I, in pocket), Richardson 1 found pre-Cambrian rocks consisting 
of rhyolite porphyry and quartzite with intrusions of granite that 
are at least in part of more recent origin. In the Manzano Moun- 
tains and the Pedernal and adjacent hills, situated north of Tula- 
rosa Basin, are extensive exposures of schist, quartzite, granite, 
and other igneous rocks, all apparently older than the Carboniferous 

1 Richardson, G. B M U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, El Paso folio (No. 166), p. 3, 1909. 



5G GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

rocks that lie above them. 1 In the mountains of Tularosa Basin, 
which occupy a position intermediate between the Manzano and 
Franklin ranges, the equivalents of the quartzite and schist have 
not been observed, but the granite of this region should probably 
be correlated with the granite in the Manzano Mountains and the 
highlands east of Estancia Valley. This granite is probably all 
pre-Cambrian, but careful examination may show that a part of it 
is, like some of the granite of the Franklin Mountains, of more 
recent origin. 

CARBONIFEBOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 
DISTRIBUTION. 

The Carboniferous system is represented in Tularosa Basin by 
strata aggregating nearly or quite a mile in total thickness and 
lying at or near the surface over about 2,000 square miles, or about 
one-third of the total area of the basin. This system includes a 
lower series known as the Mississippian, and a much thicker and more 
widely exposed upper series known as the Pennsylvanian. 

RELATION TO OLDER ROCKS. 

In northern New Mexico Pennsylvanian strata rest directly on 
the crystalline basement, believed to be pre-Cambrian, but in a 
number of localities in the southern part of the State older Paleozoic 
beds occur below the Pennsylvanian and rest on the erosion surface 
of the pre-Cambrian crystallines. In the Franklin Mountains Rich- 
ardson has found Cambrian sandstone 300 feet thick, Ordovician 
limestone 1,200 to 1,400 feet thick, and Silurian limestone about 
1,000 feet thick, on which rest unconformably at least 3,000 feet of 
Pennsylvanian rocks. 2 Cambrian and Ordovician beds have also 
been found by Gordon in the Caballos Range. 3 How far north the 
Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian beds extend before they are 
wedged out between the Carboniferous and pre-Cambrian is not 
known. In the vicinity of Mockingbird Gap no fossils were found 
in the beds immediately above the granite, but lower Pennsylvanian 
fossils were found in the talus near the granite contact and in place 
at a considerable distance above the contact. Paleozoic formations 
older than the Carboniferous are probably either absent or but 
poorly developed in Tularosa Basin. 

1 Meinzer, O. E., Geology and water resources of Estancia Valley, N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 275, p. 11, 1911. 

2 Richardson, G. B., U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, El Paso folio (No. 166), 1909. 

;! (iordon, C. H., and Graton, L. C, Lower Paleozoic formations in New Mexico : Am. 
Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 21, pp. 390-395, 1906. 



GEOLOGY. 57 

MISSISSIPPIAN SERIES. 

In northern New Mexico Mississippian, or lower Carboniferous, 
as well as older Paleozoic formations, are generally absent, but in 
the southern half of the State beds containing Mississippian fossils 
have been found in several localities. In Tularosa Basin the Missis- 
sippian series is represented by limestones that are exposed in the 
lower part of the west side of the Sacramento Mountains. Fossilif- 
erous Mississippian limestones several hundred feet thick were found 
by C. L. Herrick in the vicinity of Dog Canyon, and lower Missis- 
sippian fossils have been identified by G. H. Girty from limestones 
at the base of the Sacramento Range east and northeast of Alamo- 
gordo. No rocks containing Mississippian fossils have yet been 
found in other parts of the basin. In the northern part they would 
in general be concealed below the Pennsylvanian beds, but if Paleo- 
zoic formations older than the Pennsylvanian exist in the ranges 
on the west side they must be exposed and will be identified when 
the rocks are studied more carefully. 

PENNSYLVANIAN SERIES.. 

Outcrops. — The Pennsylvanian series is greatly developed in Tula- 
rosa Basin. Practically the entire series is present and is thrice 
repeated in the exposures of the region; first, in the Sacramento 
Mountains; second, in the Little Burro and Oscuro mountains and 
the region lying farther east and northeast; and, third, in the San 
Andreas Mountains. In the northern part of the basin the beds lie 
nearly horizontal and are generally concealed, but still farther 
north, on the east side of the Manzano Mountains and the north edge 
of the Mesa Jumanes, the greater part of the series is again exposed. 

Subdivisions. — The Pennsylvanian series of New Mexico has been 
divided into two groups — the lower known as the Magdalena and 
the upper known as the Manzano, 1 both of which are represented in 
Tularosa Basin in nearly full development. The Magdalena group 
consists of gray limestone and minor amounts of sandstone and shale 
of predominantly gray hue. The Manzano group consists largely 
of sandstone and shale, but contains also considerable limestone, espe- 
cially near the top, and much gypsum interbedded with the rocks. 
The sandstones and shales of the lower part of the group have a pre- 
vailing red color, which, however, is more noticeable in the northern 
than in the southern part of the region. 

Sacramento section. — Both the Magdalena and Manzano groups 
are exposed on the west flank of the Sacramento Mountains. Lime- 

1 Lee, W. T., and Girty, G. H., The Manzano group of the Rio Grande valley, N. Mex. : 
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 389, 1909. 



58 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES- OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

stones, shales, and sandstones containing Magdalena fossils here rest 
on the Mississippian beds or have their base concealed by talus de- 
posits. Above these, constituting the middle part of the mountain 
escarpment east of Alamogordo, lie several thousand feet of sedi- 
ments that are largely clastic and of red color. Still farther up, 
forming the top of the mountain at Cloudcroft and extending some 
distance north of the Indian agency, are limestones bearing Manzano 
fossils. The total thickness of the Pennsylvanian series in these 
mountains is rendered somewhat uncertain by faulting, but it is prob- 
ably not much less than 5,000 feet. 

Several isolated limestone buttes, nearly submerged by desert sedi- 
ments, extend in a chain with a general north-south trend across the 
plain a few miles west of the base of the Sacramento Mountains. 
At the north end of the chain is Cerrito Tularosa (sec. 12, T. 15 S., 
R. 8 E.) ; farther south, a short distance northeast of the Point of 
Sands, are two small limestone domes (situated, respectively, on 
sec. 28, T. 17 S., R. 8 E., and sec. 6, T. 18 S., R. 8 E.) ; and still 
farther south are the two buttes of the Tres Hermanos group (sees. 
28 and 33, T. 18 S., R. 8 E.). In all of these buttes were found 
Manzano fossils, which correlate their beds with the limestones at 
Cloudcroft and the Indian agency, at altitudes several thousand feet 
higher. Pennsylvanian fossils were also found in the dark lime- 
stones of the Jarilla Range. 

Oscuro section. — Pennsylvanian fossils were collected in three prin- 
cipal localities on the west side of the basin and were identified by 
G. H. Girty, of the United States Geological Survey, who also 
examined the Carboniferous fossils collected in other parts of the 
region. The first of the three localities is at a coal prospect in the 
Little Burro Mountains, one-half mile north of Thomas McDonald's 
ranch (about sec. 8, T. 9 S., R. 5 E.) ; the second is in the eastern 
foothills of the Oscuro Mountains, about three-fourths mile west of 
Estey and near the pipe line; the third is in a large canyon at the 
east edge of the Chupadera Plateau, about 4 miles north of the Cerros 
Prietos (about W. £ sec. 12, T. 5 S,, R. 8 E.). 

The Little Burro Mountains consist of a series of low ridges 
composed of beds that dip about 20° E. At the base of the series 
resting on the granite is a dark brown conglomerate only 5 to 10 feet 
thick, containing well-rounded quartzose pebbles. Above this is a 
succession of strata consisting of gray limestones and minor amounts 
of coarse gray sandstones and gray calcareous shales, estimated to 
have a total thickness of over 2,000 feet. Next in upward succession 
and forming the easternmost hills of the Little Burro group, are com- 
pact dull-red sandstones and red shales, with a total thickness of 
probably not less than 1,000 feet. The fossils were collected in the 
midst of the gray group of beds and are of Magdalena age. Closely 



GEOLOGY. 59 

associated with the fossiliferous beds is a seam of impure coal, some- 
what more than a foot thick, on which considerable development work 
was at one time done. 

The Oscuro Mountains, which lie east of the Little Burro Eange 
and parallel with it, have the same structure and repeat the same 
sedimentary series. The stratified beds rest on the granite and dip 
eastward. The lower gray beds are exposed immediately above the 
granite and form the upper part of the west- facing escarpment. 
The beds that lie stratigraphically higher and have a prevailingly 
red color outcrop in the eastern foothills of the range. The forma- 
tions in the vicinity of Estey dip in general about 20° E. and consist 
of red and blue sandstone, red sandy shale, blue and drab shale, 
and gray limestone. The horizon from which the fossils were col- 
lected is a bed of massive, hard, gray limestone about 8 feet thick, 
outcropping between beds of dark red sandy shale and forming a 
conspicuous ledge along the hillsides. The fossils belong either to 
the Magdalena or the lower part of the Manzano group. The beds 
in which they occur are no doubt stratigraphically above the gray 
beds in which fossils were collected in the Little Burro Range and 
the lower part of the Sacramento Mountains. 

Gray limestone with much interbedded gypsum predominate ( 1 ) 
in the hills west of the lava beds, (2) in the eastern part of the Chu- 
padera Plateau from the Cerros Prietos at least as far north as 
Gran Quivira, and (3) in the northern and western parts of the 
plain lying between the lava beds and Gran Quivira. The limestones 
of the greater part of this region are nonf ossilif erous, , or nearly so, 
but in certain localities they yield fossils in great abundance. The 
fossils collected at the east edge of the plateau are Manzano types, 
and this is probably the age of the rocks of this entire region, in- 
cluding the Mesa Jumanes to the escarpment overlooking Estancia 
Valley, on the top of which G. B. Richardson, of the United States 
Geological Survey, found Pennsylvanian fossils. 1 The limestones, 
gypsum beds, and associated sandstones x of this large region appar- 
ently belong to the middle or upper part of the Manzano group and 
rest on the red beds exposed on the east sides of the Oscuro, Little 
Burro, and Manzano ranges. Toward the southeast they pass be- 
neath Cretaceous or older Mesozoic sediments and volcanic rocks, 
but are stratigraphically continuous in a general way with the beds 
of the Sacramento Mountains. According to Keyes they pass be- 
neath Cretaceous beds in the western part of the Chupadera Plateau. 
Sandstones that may be post-Pennsylvanian are found between the 
lava beds and Ancho, but limestone and gypsum outcrop at Ancho. 

1 Lee, W. T., and Girty, G. EL, The Manzano group of the Rio Grande valley, N. Mex, : 
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 389, p. 21, 1909. 



60 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

San Andreas section. — Practically the entire Pennsylvanian series 
is again exposed in the San Andreas Mountains, but it here dips 
west instead of east. The oldest formations, consisting of gray 
limestone and clastic beds, outcrop above the granite in the upper 
part of the east-facing escarpment; red beds come to the surface 
mainly west of the crest; and above them lie beds of limestone, 
gypsum, sandstone, and shale. At the top of the series are about 500 
feet of massive limestone, classified by W. T. Lee x as the uppermost 
Carboniferous formation known in this part of New Mexico. 

CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 

Cretaceous and perhaps older Mesozoic deposits lie at or near the 
surface over a large part of the area east of the lava beds, between 
Coyote station and Three Rivers (PI. XVII). They are exposed in 
numerous localities in the valley of Three Elvers, in the Godfrey 
Hills, in the region south, west, and north of Oscuro, in Milagro Hill, 
on the upland east of Milagro Hill, in Willow Hill, in numerous 
small ridges between Milagro Hill and Carrizozo, in the escarp- 
ments between Carrizozo and the younger lava bed, in the region 
between Carrizozo and Coyote station, and in the region about White- 
oaks. The most northerly point at which Cretaceous fossils were 
observed is where the railroad crosses the draw just south of Coyote. 
Buff and red sandstones outcrop at many places in the region be- 
tween Coyote and Ancho and between Coyote and the lava beds, but 
no fossils were found in these sandstones and their age remains a 
matter of conjecture. The strike of the beds is in general parallel 
to the trend of the escarpments shown in Plate VI. In the vicinity 
of Oscuro the dip is nearly east, but northward it becomes increas- 
ingly southeast, until in the vicinity of Bed Lake it is nearly due 
south, and north of Coyote it is west of south. 

The Cretaceous deposits consist of alternating beds of sandstone, 
shale, and limestone. The sandstones are soft and commonly of a 
buff color where exposed. The shales, which are generally soft and 
of dark hues, are not so conspicuous in outcrops as the sandstones, 
but they form a large part of the total thickness in well sections. 
No red sandstones or shales containing Cretaceous fossils were found, 
but dark purplish red and variegated beds occur along the north- 
west margin .of the Cretaceous area which belong either to the lower 
part of the Cretaceous or between the Cretaceous and Pennsylvanian. 
Strata of hard gray limestone containing abundant Cretaceous fos- 
sils outcrop in a few localities, but do not form a large part of the 
total Cretaceous section. Coal has been found in outcrops in the 
vicinity of Whiteoaks, in Willow Hill, and in Milagro Hill, and 

1 Op. cit., p. 20. 



GEOLOGY. 61 

was encounteied in drill holes at Carrizozo and in the valley of 
Three Rivers. 

The following generalized stratigraphic section in this region is 
reported by Carroll H. Wegemann, of the United States Geological 
Survey, who worked in that field in 1912 : 

Stratigraphic section, Sierra Blanca coal field, New Mexico. 1 

Feet. 

1. Coal-bearing formation; shale, sandstone, and thin beds of 

limestone containing two to eight beds of bituminous coal 
that differ greatly in thickness; a few leaf impressions; 
fresh water 630 

2. Shale, sandstone, and limestone; the upper third of this 

division consists of shale interbedded with impure lime- 
stone, weathering buff and containing numerous fossils; 
below are interbedded sandstone and shale; and at the 
base lies a heavy stratum of sandstone, which usually 
forms an escarpment 440 

3. Shale, dark gray and bluish, having near its base two or 

more thin beds of bentonite and a bed of blue limestone; 
fossils collected near the base identified as Benton; esti- 
mated thickness 500 

4. Dakota (?) sandstone; buff, coarse sandstone, interstratified 

at its top with thin beds of shale resembling that of the 
Benton ; contains plant impressions but nothing sufficiently 
well preserved for identification; possible representative 
of the Dakota sandstone (Upper Cretaceous) and Coman- 
che series (Lower Cretaceous) 175 

5. Morrison (?) formation; shale, variegated pink and green, 

containing thin beds of limestone, conglomerate, and beds 
of white sandstone ; possible representative of the Morrison 
formation; estimated thickness 590 

6. Limestone (Carboniferous), gray; estimated thickness 700 

7. Red beds (Carboniferous). 

Fossils were collected in the following five localities in Tularosa 
Basin: (1) Along a draw south of Oscuro, on the west side of the 
railroad, in NW. J sec. 24, T. 10 S., R. 8 E.; (2) along the railroad 
north of Oscuro and west of Milagro Hill, in center of sec. 19, T. 9 
S., R. 9 E. ; (3) along the railroad between Carrizozo and Coyote, 
in NW. i sec. 7, T. 7 S., R. 11 E.; (4) in Coyote Hill, in NW. J sec. 
18, T. 8 S., R. 10 E. ; and (5) on the east side of Willow Hill. These 
fossils were examined by T. W. Stanton, of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, who reported that they apparently belong to the 
Montana group of the Upper Cretaceous series and represent ap- 
proximately the horizon of No. 2 in Mr. Wegemann's section. The 
first four localities apparently represent a belt of outcropping strata 

1 Wegemann, C. H., Geology and coal resources of the Sierra Blanca coal field, New 
Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 541, p. 426, 1914. 



62 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

of Montana age that extends along the trend of the escarpments 
from near Coyote to a point south of Oscuro. East of this belt 
younger coal-bearing Cretaceous beds, correlated with No. 1 in the 
above section, come to the surface. Underlying the benches west of 
the fossiliferous belt is probably the shale designated No. 3 in the 
above section, and still farther west, in the escarpments near the 
younger lava bed, is probably the sandstone designated No. 4, Da- 
kota ( ? ) , in the above section. The red and variegated beds that 
outcrop in the belt that lies between Coyote and Red Lake and 
extends southwestward to the younger lava are probably to be cor- 
related with No. 5, Morrison ( ?) , in the above section. The section is 
probably in part repeated by faulting in Willow Hill, the Godfrey 
Hills, and some of the northern escarpments. In Nogal Arroyo near 
Walnut there are outcrops of red shale and sandstone that are no 
doubt older than the Upper Cretaceous series (Nos. 1 to 4 of the 
above section). 

The section of the 965 -foot well at Oscuro, except for a few feet 
at the top, appears to consist of Cretaceous or other strata younger 
than the Pennsylvanian. (See fig. 33.) The deep wells at Carri- 
zozo appear to pass through about 1,000 feet of Cretaceous or other 
strata younger than the Pennsylvanian, but the gypsum and lime- 
stone near the bottom of the 1,125-foot well probably belong to the 
Carboniferous system. (See fig. 32.) 

TERTIARY INTRUSIVE ROCKS AND IGNEOUS ROCKS OF 

UNCERTAIN AGE. 

Intrusive rocks that differ widely in texture and mineralogic 
composition are found in numerous localities throughout Tularosa 
Basin. They include rhyolites, syenites, quartz diorites, and augite 
kersantites, according to E. S. Larsen, of the United States Geologi- 
cal Survey, who examined the specimens collected. They form 
dikes and sills in both the Carboniferous and Cretaceous sedimen- 
tary beds but are most abundant in the latter. The great masses 
of igneous rock that form the cores of several ranges from the 
Sierra Blanca to the Jicarilla Mountains, inclusive, were not care- 
fully examined but are probably batholithic bodies formed from 
molten magmas erupted after the Cretaceous sediments had been 
deposited. 

Intrusive rocks predominate in the Godfrey Hills, the Palisades, 
the valley of Three Rivers, and the region between the Godfrey 
Hills and the Sierra Blanca. They have here been injected into 
the Cretaceous strata in such quantities that the latter outcrop 
in comparatively fragmentary and isolated masses. In other parts 
of the Cretaceous area the igneous rocks form a smaller proportion 
of the outcrops and have disturbed the sedimentary beds less vio- 



GEOLOGY. 63 

lently. Their most characteristic position is at the top of the 
Cretaceous escarpments, which they protect from erosion. Thus 
igneous rocks are found on the crest of the Phillips Hills, Milagro 
Hill, Jakes Hill, Polly Hills, Willow Hill, the escarpment north of 
the Bar W ranch (in T. 7 S., R. 10 E.), and the escarpment next 
north (in the southern part of T. 6 S., R. 10 E.). The igneous 
masses in these positions appear to be sills — their magmas having 
been intruded between Cretaceous beds and the beds above having 
been more recently removed by erosion. The rock that caps Mila- 
gro Hill is a dark gray augite kersantite with huge augite crystals, 
and the same bed is probably represented in Jakes Hill, Willow 
Hill, and several other escarpments. In many places in the Cre- 
taceous area dikes of igneous rocks cut the sedimentary beds, and 
some of these dikes, more resistant to weathering than the sedi- 
mentary beds, form conspicuous ridges. The buttes northeast of 
Carrizozo (in the south-central part of T. 7 S., R. 11 E.), consist of 
soda rhyolite that is different from most of the igneous masses 
associated with the Cretaceous of this region. Their relation to the 
Cretaceous beds is concealed by the mantle of detritus that sur- 
rounds them. 

Intrusive bodies are also found in the Carboniferous rocks, al- 
though less commonly than in the Cretaceous. Dikes and sills were 
seen in the Carboniferous rocks at numerous points in the Sacra- 
mento Mountains, in the vicinity of Ancho, in the vicinity of Gran 
Quivira, and at several widely separated localities in the Chupadera 
Plateau. The rock examined east of Ancho is quartz diorite; that 
in the canyon 5 miles north of the Cerros Prietos is syenite. Igneous 
rock, reported by C. H. Herrick as intrusive in the Carboniferous, 
occurs at the base of the Sacramento escarpment in the vicinity of 
Dog Canyon. The lone butte 5 miles southwest of Dog Canyon sta- 
tion (S. \ sec. 31, T. 18 S., R. 8 E.) consists of granite (perhaps pre- 
Cambrian) and intruded masses of augite kersantite. Intrusive 
masses of igneous rock occur in the Jarilla Mountains associated with 
Carboniferous limestone. The Organ Mountains consist chiefly of 
granitic rock which, as shown by Lindgren, 1 are at least in great 
part a post-Carboniferous batholithic intrusion. 

The intrusive rocks associated with -the Cretaceous formations are 
younger than these formations, but they are apparently older than 
the faulting movements that produced the escarpments, and they 
have certainly existed during a long period of erosion. They are 
believed to be of Tertiary age, and may represent more than one 
epoch of volcanic activity within the Tertiary. The dikes and sills 
in the Carboniferous rocks may in part be older than those in the 

1 Lindgren, Waldemar, The ore deposits of New Mexico : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. 
Paper 68, p. 208, 1910. 



64 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



( retaceous, but they probably have the same age. Keyes reports cer- 
tain dikes in the Chupadera Plateau that cut the Carboniferous beds 

but do not extend into over- 
lying Cretaceous, and are re- 
garded by him as pre- Creta- 
ceous. 



Altitude 

Feet above 

sea level 



Altitude 

Feet above 

sea level 



4.300 - 



Red clay 
iS-ir—d Gypsum 



4,200 



4,100 



v^?7? 



4,000- =HHHj 



"Stratified red clay 
and claystone" 



Red clay and gravel 
"Limerock" 

"Yellow clay 
and claystone" 



4,200- 



4,100 -=■££■ 



Redclay 



Sticky red clay 



Adobe 
Gravel (water) 

Adobe 
Gravel (water> 



Adobe 



Gravel (water) 



Adobe 



3.900- ?>>; 



3,800- 



3,700- 



Redclay 



Yellow clay 
_ Red clay 
^-Blue clay 

Yellow clay 



3,600- K-ET-3 



3.500 



"Clayey material* 



3,400 



3.300- yp^f-2 



FIGURE 11. — Sections of deep test well near 
Alamogordo (NW. J NE. J sec. 26, T. 16 S., 
R. 9 E.) and of well at Ice plant in Alamo- 
j, r ordo. 

derived from the older formations and commonly known as the 
" valley fill," reaches to depths of several hundred feet, and probably 



TERTIARY (?) SEDIMENTARY 
ROCKS. 

Reddish clastic deposits, 
some of them conglomeratic, 
occur at the surface over con- 
siderable areas in the moun- 
tains on the east side of the 
basin, especially in the region 
between Three Rivers and La 
Luz Creek. These deposits 
apparently rest unconform- 
ably on Carboniferous rocks 
and may be of Tertiary age. 
They do not come within the 
area covered by the map, 
Plate XVII, and because their 
age is unknown they are not 
represented in the columnar 
section on page 54. 

VALLEY FILL (QUATERNARY 
AND TERTIARY (P)). 

DISTRIBUTION, THICKNESS, AND 
AGE. 

The indurated formations 
thus far described may be re- 
garded as constituting a basin 
that has become partly filled 
with the rock waste brought 
by the streams from the moun- 
tains. Over nearly the entire 
desert area between the Sacra- 
mento and San Andreas moun- 
tains and extending south to 
the Rio Grande, this waste, 



GEOLOGY. 



65 



in most places to depths of more than 1,000 
feet. Northeast of the Phillips Hills and 
north of the upper crossing of the malpais, 
however, the older rock formations are gen- 
erally near the surface and the unconsoli- 
dated sediments are only locally as much 
as 100 feet deep. The valley fill can be seen 
to depths of 20 to 50 feet in the banks of 
arroyos and alkali flats, and occasionally to 
somewhat greater depths in open wells, but 
the larger part of these deposits are con- 
cealed from view and their character is 
unknown except as it is revealed by the 
drillings from deep wells. 

In 1905 a test well sunk by the railroad 
company about 1-| miles west of Alamogordo 
and 5 miles from the base of the Sacra- 
mento Mountains (NW. J NE. J sec. 26, T. 
16 S., R. 9 E.) was carried to a depth of a 
little over 1,000 feet without reaching the 
bottom of the unconsolidated fill (fig. 11). 
In 1910 two test wells were drilled about 
one-half mile north of Dog Canyon station 
(NE. J sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 9 E.) and not 
more than 5 miles from the base of the 
Sacramento Mountains. The first well 
reached a depth of 1,235 feet and the second 
about 1,800 feet, apparently without reaching 
the bottom of the unconsolidated valley fill. 
(See fig. 12.) At the El Paso city water- 
works, a short distance northeast of Fort 
Bliss, a well was drilled to a depth of 2,285 
feet, passing through nothing except valley 
fill, at least to a depth of 1,560 feet. (See 
fig. 13, p. 66.) 

The valley fill was laid down after the 
basin was formed and is much younger than 
any of the sedimentary rocks found in 
the mountains. The upper part is un- 
doubtedly of Quaternary age. The lower 
part is concealed and its age is not known, 
but the filling of the basin must have required 
a long time, and it is probable that the low- 
est sediments were deposited in the Tertiary 
period. 

48731°— wsp 343—15 5 



Weei aBove 
sea level _ 



4,000 



3,900- 



8,800 -infi- 



ll GypSeous adobe 

%| Gypsum 
Red clayey material 
Sand and gravel 
Red clayey material 
Sand and gravel 



,3,700 



3,600 



3,500- 



3,400- 



8,800- ^hh 



3,200- 



3,100- 



3,000- 



2,900- 



Red clayey material 
Sand and gravel 

Red clayey material 
Sand and gravel 



Red clayey material 



Sand and gravel 



Red clayey material 



Sand and gravel 



Red clayey material 



Sand and grave) 
Z-i Red clayey material 

Figure 12, — Section of 
deep test well near 
Dog Canyon station, 



66 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES T>F TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



r-^~^=^l-^-£ 






Sand 


!*k*?tts§ 






Gravel, etc. 


§SSSS«= 


Clay 


ifffv-f 


Sand 


HJBI] 


Clay 


-- - 




ll§lffi 


Sandy clay 


5gS=Sf2S 


Clay 


siaSv^ 


Sandy clay 


ii*« 




^-_-_^_-_- 


Clay 


rr££frVi 


1561 feet 


Figure 13.— Partial 


section of the deep- 


est well at El Paso 


waterworks, north 


of Fort Bliss. 


After G. B. Rich- 


ardson, U. S. Geol. 


Survey Geol. Atlas, 


El Paso folio (No. 


1G6), 


1009. 



WATER-DEPOSITED CLAY, SAND, AND GRAVEL. 

Most of the valley fill consists of clay or adobe, 
the latter having a matrix of clay with embedded 
coarser particles. Most of the clayey deposits have 
a reddish color and are gypseous and calcareous, 
passing through all gradations into deposits of 
nearly pure gypsum. Interbedded with the red 
clayey deposits are strata or lenses of sand and 
gravel, many of which also include much clayey 
material. 

The character of these deposits is clearly related 
to the character of the derivative rock formations. 
The Pennsylvanian rocks exposed in the Sacra- 
mento, San Andreas, Little Burro, and Oscuro 
mountains include red shaly beds of great total 
thickness and comparatively small amounts of 
sandstone. When these red beds disintegrated they 
supplied tne materials that comprise the thick un- 
consolidated red clayey deposits of the valley fill. 
According to the log of the 1,235-foot Dog Canyon 
test well (fig. 12) , less than 10 per cent of the valley 
fill in that section consists of sand and gravel, 
nearly all of the rest being red clayey material. 
The logs of the 186-foot ice-plant well at Alamo- 
gordo and the 1,004-foot test well west of Alamo- 
gordo (fig. 13) show still smaller amounts of sand 
and gravel and greater amounts of red clay. The 
preponderance of red clayey material is also shown 
by other well logs and by exposures in dug wells 
throughout the area adjacent to the mountains just 
mentioned, although on the west side of the basin, 
where a part of the sediments are derived from 
granite, it is somewhat less noticeable than on the 
east side, where the granite is generally concealed. 

Farther north, on the east side of the basin, 
where the debris is derived chiefly from Cretaceous 
sedimentary formations and igneous rocks, the 
clayey deposits are less red, and beds of sand and 
gravel are probably less rare. In the southern part 
of the basin, adjacent to the Organ Mountains, 
which are almost entirely granitic, the beds of sand 
are notably thicker and more numerous, as is shown 
by the section of the railroad well at Newman 
(fig. 14) and by the logs of the other wells drilled 



GEOLOGY. 



67 



Altitude 

Feet above 

sea level 



Sand and clay 



in that region. In the western part of the Hueco Basin the valley 
fill, derived chiefly from the Organ and Franklin mountains, is also 
less red and includes much more sand. For example, well No. 16 of 
the El Paso waterworks (fig. 15), which is 550 feet deep, passes 
through 16 beds of sand or gravel that together constitute 40 per cent 
of the section. Not only are the crystalline rocks, which furnish 
much coarse debris, abundant in the Organ and Franklin mountains, 
but the Pennsylvanian rocks exposed in these mountains contain no 
red beds. 

The proportion of sand and gravel is also apparently greater 
near the mountains than in the interior of the basin, and greater 
within the first few hundred feet of the surface than farther doAvn. 
In the wells drilled in the vicinity of Alamogordo several beds of 
sand and gravel are generally found between thick beds of clay 
within the first 200 or 300 feet of the surface, 
but little except clay has been discovered by deeper 
drilling. Three beds of sand or gravel, known 
respectively as the first, second, and third stratum, 
are locally recognized, but the available well sec- 
tions do not show that the sandy or gravelly strata 
occur at the same horizons in different localities, 
or that they are everywhere present. 

The beds of clay, sand, and gravel are largely 
stream deposits, but are in part lake deposits, and 
may include some ancient dune sands. Most of the 
valley fill that outcrops along the Rio Grande at 
El Paso has an irregular lenticular stratification 
that indicates stream deposition. At the El Paso 
waterworks over a score of wells 400 to 600 feet 
deep have been drilled at intervals of 300 feet 
(fig. 27) and careful logs were kept at each well. 
When these logs are arranged in order (fig. 15) it becomes obvious 
that the strata penetrated in the different wells can not be correlated 
and that they are chiefly of the irregular lenticular type found in 
stream deposits. At several points in the vicinity of El Paso, how- 
ever, there are outcrops of horizontally laminated beds of clay and 
silt which were obviously deposited in a body of quiet water. The 
best exposure was seen at the corner of Mesa Avenue and Hill Street, 
where a recent excavation revealed about 35 feet of these beds lying 
unconformably below irregular gravelly stream deposits. 

The sections exposed in numerous dug wells and natural outcrops 
in the region west of the Sacramento Mountains consist of the red, 
more or less gypseous and calcareous clay or adobe already men- 
tioned. On the upper parts of the stream-built slopes this adobe 
contains embedded pebbles and bowlders and may show some rough 



3,900- 

3,800- 

Water 
level 
3,700- 


f^Z-Z- 



Sand 



Figure 14. — Section 
of railroad well at 
Newman. 



68 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



stratification, but at the lower levels, to the depths that it is exposed, 
it is generally free of coarse material, shows no stratification or 
lamination, and is remarkably homogeneous throughout. It differs 
from ordinary stream deposits in the assortment of its material and 



.« -•.••••°. :■::•■. 

.«.• t> -.'■'•''• -"'P.? ; 

•o • o • °P ■' ■.'_' 
, .•• .* ■• '.*■ o ; ? 

:•*«•. :.. : o- .:'?.'■ }?.': 

«v *o o. o. •■ :o 
o.o °p. 



4 ^ v ^ 







o :vp .. ■ o-p.o 



^ 



•Soil. 

Caliche. 

Sand and gravel. 



Sandy clay. 



O O O O O " O O » O 



Clay. 



Sand and gravel. 
Sand. 
| Clay. 
Sand. 



Clay. 



Clay. 



Sand. 



Clay. 



Clay. 



Sand. 



Clay. 



Figure 15. — Sections of four wells at El Paso waterworks. 

lack of rough stratification, from ordinary lake deposits in its lack 
of regular stratification, and from ordinary wind deposits in its 
heavy clayey character and apparent absence of cross-bedding. The 
calcareous character of the adobe is shown by the large concretions, 
many of them cylindrical in form, which it contains. 



GEOLOGY. 69 

Red clayey sediments form a veneer over the broad flat floors of 
the mid-slope arroyos, fill some of the sink-hole and wind-formed 
depressions in the gypsum belt to considerable depths, and cover 
parts of the plain adjacent to the malpais, especially on the west 
side. In all these locations they have been deposited very recently 
by sluggish flood waters and are so uncompact that they become ex- 
cessively miry in wet weather. Deposition of clayey material can 
be observed in process when floods from the mountains or upper 
slopes spread in sheets over the smooth and nearly level lowlands, 
but it is uncertain to what extent the homogeneous adobe seen in 
outcrops and well sections may have been formed in this manner. 

GYPSUM DEPOSITS. 

One of the most remarkable features of the Tularosa Basin is the 
great quantity of gypsum found in the interior. This gypsum is 
derived from the gypsum beds in the Pennsylvanian rocks outcrop- 
ping in the mountains. Since it is comparatively soluble it was 
brought to the low interior of the basin chiefly in solution in the sur- 
face and underground waters, and was redeposited when these waters 
evaporated, either from desiccating lakes or from springs or wet 
areas fed from underground sources. The deposits thus formed have 
been altered and further transported by repeated re-solution and 
redeposition and by wind work. 

Gypsum underlies the southern part of the large alkali flat, all 
of the white sands area, and a section of the low desert plain extend- 
ing southward to T. 22 S., Rs. 5 and 6 E., eastward to Dog Canyon 
and within a few miles of Alamogordo and Tularosa, and north- 
westward to a point beyond Malpais Spring. (See detailed descrip- 
tions on pp. 199-206.) It outcrops along most of the alkali flats 
(PI. XV, B) in the outliers that project above the flats, in erosion 
remnants of the white sands (PI. XIII), in the banks of the mid- 
slope and low-level arroyos (PL XIX, A), in many open wells, in 
sink holes (PL XV, (7), and in the knolls and hummocks produced 
by sink holes and wind work* throughout the gypseous portion of the 
desert plain. Its distribution is shown not only by outcrops and 
well sections, but also by the existence of sink holes and hummocky 
topography. 

The gypsum seen in outcrops has several different forms, indicating 
corresponding differences in origin. 

In the banks of the large alkali flat from the vicinity of Ritch's 
ranch to the southern extremity, and in outliers that project above 
this part of the flat, outcrops about 20 feet deep generally show 
gypsum with distinct horizontal bedding indicating deposition from 
the concentrated waters of an ancient lake (PL XV, B). Selenite 



70 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 




Gypsum 

Upper limit of capillary water 
3 Transition zone 

Gypseous red adobe 
-Water level 

Figure 16. — Section in dug well 7 
miles west of Tularosa (SE. 4 sec. 
25, T. 14 S., R. 8 E.), showing re- 
lation of gypsum to adobe and of 
capillary water to the ground-water 
level. 



crystals more than a foot long are found at the surface near the north 
Lucero ranch. 

In the mid-slope arroyos and in the wells of the gypseous plain the 
section in downward succession is commonly as follows: (1) Soil, 
composed of impure gypsum or gypseous clay, from less than 1 foot 
to several feet thick; (2) hard massive gypsum resembling the bed- 
rock ledges, from 1 foot to several feet thick; (3) soft, homogeneous 

gypsum — in only a few places show- 
ing horizontal bedding similar to 
that of the gypsum deposits adjacent 
to the' alkali flat (PL XIV, A) — 
ranging in thickness from less than 
5 feet to more than 10 feet; (4) red 
homogeneous gypseous adobe, to bot- 
tom of exposure. (See figs. 16 and 
17.) The boundaries between the 
successive formations are indefinite, 
the transition from the gypsum to the 
underlying adobe being especially 
gradual. The hard gypsum ledge is prominent at the brinks of the 
mid-slope arroyos, where it has little or no cover of soil, and is seen 
at the surface in many knolls and hummocks. The main mass of 
gypsum in this section gives little evidence of its origin, but the 
occasional stratification shows that it is at least in part a lake deposit. 
The section is strikingly similar to the ordinary lime caliche section, 
where the soil is underlain by hard rocklike caliche, which is under- 
lain by softer caliche that gradually 
changes downward into clayey mate- 
rial. It seems probable that the main 
mass of gypsum was deposited in an 
ancient lake, the clay deposits gradu- 
ally giving way to the gypsum de- 
posits as the lake waters became con- 
centrated; that this gypsum was 
changed in form and texture and to 
some extent redistributed by solution 
and redeposition of soil waters 
through processes in some respects similar to those involved in the 
formation of caliche; that the soil is largely the product of wind 
work, and that wind rehandled some of the main mass of gypsum 
before the hard capping layer was formed. In some places, as 
already described, the gypsum is covered by recently deposited 
adobe. 




Reddish loam 

Unconsolidated homogeneous 
gypseous material 

Transition zone 

Unstratified reddish clay 
with crystals of gypsum 

15-^" 

Figure 17. — Section in dug well of 
H. W. Schofield (SW. \ sec. 2, T. 
17 S., R. 9. E.), showing relation 
of gypsum to adobe. 



R 



GEOLOGY. 71 

The main body of gypsum sand lies east of the large southern alkali 
flat and is derived chiefly from the bedded gypsum that was removed 
by the wind in the development of the flat but in part from the 
gypsum deposited by evaporating ground waters since the flat came 
into existence. It is extensively cross-bedded (PI. XIII) and con- 
sists of gypsum crystals rounded by wind wear. On the west side 
there are many coarse, angular crystal fragments, but farther east 
the wind-driven sands are smaller and better rounded. The eolian 
origin of the older parts of the formation is obscured by the solution 
and redeposition that is constantly taking place and that tends to 
convert the rounded sand grains into a crystalline mass. When dry 
the formation is in some localities nearly as white as snow, but in 
many places it has a slightly gray or cream color due to impurities. 
At night its whiteness gives it a distinct glow. Its purity where 
it is best developed is shown by the following analysis by Dr. W. J. 
Gies: 1 

Analysis of white sands, Tularosa Basin, N. Mex. 

Per cent. 

CaO_ 30. 8 

S0 3 - 44. 2 

Si0 2 2.7 

Al 2 3 +Fe 2 3 0. 4 

H 2 0__ 20. 8 

Other constituents (by difference) 1.1 

100.0 
Gypsum (CaS0 4 ,2H 2 0) 95.8 

Toward the north the gypsum sand gradually gives way to 
quartz sand, the diminution in gypsum sand being obviously due 
to the fact that the bedded gypsum formation from which the gyp- 
sum sand is derived disappears toward the north. Deposits of 
impure gypsum sand and dust have been formed by the wind over 
large but indefinite tracts, especially east and south of the main 
body of wind-blown gypsum. They may represent an older epoch 
of wind work or only a less vigorous phase of the present wind 
activity. 

WIND-DEPOSITED QUARTZ SAND. 

In addition to the gypsum sands the basin contains extensive 
areas of wind- deposited quartz sand. The large area immediately 
north of the white sands consists of dunes of ordinary yellowish 
sand, probably derived largely from the disintegration of Cretaceous 
sandstones and brought approximately into its present position by 

1 MacDougal, D. T., Botanical features of North American deserts : Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington Pub. 99, p. 16, 1908. 



72 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES t)F TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

southwest storm winds acting upon the lake that once covered the 
lowlands. The southern dune area, surrounding the Jarilla Moun- 
tains, is larger than the northern one, but less definite and with 
smaller and more isolated dunes. It is in contrast with the northern 
area in having sand of reddish instead of yellowish color. 

SALINE DEPOSITS. 

Deposits of sodium chloride (common salt) and sodium sulphate 
(locally but erroneously called "soda") are found in certain low 
places. Thin crusts of sodium chloride occur on the small northern 
alkali flats, in certain localities along Salt Creek, and in some of 
the arroyos and small flats east of the white sands. Sodium sul- 
phate has been found in considerable quantities underlying the 
southern part of the large alkali flat in the vicinity of the Eddy 
prospect (PL II, in pocket), and in the southern embayment of this 
flat. Thin crusts of magnesium sulphate (?) were observed in the 
arroyo on sec. 9, T. 15 S., E. 9 E. 

These very soluble deposits were in part formed when the ancient 
lake dried up and yielded the salts that remained longest in solution. 
In part they were formed, and are still being formed, by the evapora- 
tion of mineralized ground waters that reach the surface through 
springs and capillary action. The latter process is to some extent a 
process of reconcentration. 

CALICHE. 

Caliche, or the lime hardpan that lies immediately below the soil, 
is most extensively developed in the southern part of the basin and 
in the extreme northern part. It is seen in railroad cuts and other 
exposures south of the Jarilla Mountains and becomes very thick and 
hard in the region south of Tularosa Basin. It is also abundant on 
the divide between this basin and the Estancia and Pinos Wells 
basins. The wells in the vicinity of Carrizozo generally pene- 
trate, at depths of 25 to 50 feet, a flesh-colored hardpan, com- 
posed chiefly of clay and calcium carbonate and probably represent- 
ing a buried caliche. The large amount of limestone in the forma- 
tions that have been disintegrated to form the valley fill makes it 
probable that much calcium carbonate is present in the valley fill 
and that it forms the cement in the hard layers penetrated by the 
drill. Such a layer is reported in the section of the Alamogordo 
test well at the depth of 125 feet. (See fig. 11.) 

QUATERNARY BASALT. 

Character and distribution. — Tularosa Basin includes two beds 
of lava, which, though not of the same age, were both formed during 



GEOLOGY. 73 

the Quaternary period and are much younger than the Tertiary lavas 
already described, (See pp. 34-40.) The areas covered by these beds 
and their relation to other formations are shown in Plates IX (p. 42) 
and XVII (p. 54). Both beds form thin sheets, probably less than 
100 feet in average thickness, but in the vicinity of the craters they 
are several hundred feet thick. 

Both beds consist of basalt of the same general appearance and 
no doubt of similar composition. They are predominantly black, 
but locally reddish or brownish. Gray cinders composed of very 
light spongy lava cover the volcanic cones and lie in heaps a short dis- 
tance northeast of the younger cone. (See fig. 5, p. 38.) They were 
evidently produced by gas or vapor that was erupted with the lava 
and that expanded suddenly when it reached the surface where the 
pressure was removed. The bulk of the lava flowed some distance 
before solidifying, lost most of its gas, and became relatively com- 
pact, though its vesicular texture, especially near the surface, shows 
that it cooled before all of the gas bubbles had escaped. The lava 
that was most violently ejected, however, cooled while still inflated 
by the gas, and fell to the surface near the crater in solidified frag- 
ments or cinders. 

Weathering and other changes. — In many places the younger 
basalt has a shining black surface apparently untouched by the 
weather, but commonly the original surface is pitted by weathering, 
the material having been disintegrated and removed to the depth of 
a fraction of an inch. The older basalt has few fresh surfaces and is 
much more- extensively disintegrated than the younger, although its 
disintegration does not generally extend far below the surface. The 
cinder deposits of the older formation appear practically as fresh as 
those of the younger. 

The younger bed has no soil except in the crevices of the rock, 
and the soil found in these crevices was chiefly deposited by the 
wind, although it is in small part derived from the disintegrated 
lava itself. This meager soil supports various desert bushes and 
in the northern part many small sturdy pines and cedars. The older 
bed is in most places covered by a thin layer of pebbly soil produced 
by the weathering of the formation. 

The younger basalt has nowhere been touched by stream erosion, 
the volcanic cone and cinder mounds being as smooth and symmet- 
rical as when they were formed and the bed in general being so 
jagged and having so many fissures that the water does not flow 
over it. On the older basalt short gullies have been cut at a number 
of places. (See p. 38.) 

Arroyos have been formed at certain places along the margins 
of both beds by the flood waters, but they are more extensively 



74 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

developed along the older than along the younger bed. Consider- 
able sedimentation has also taken place along the margin of both 
beds. Near the north end of the younger bed a well passed through 
about 15 feet of unconsolidated sediments and then penetrated sev- 
eral feet of basalt. At the lower crossing the lava is largely silted 
over, and advantage has been taken of this condition in construct- 
ing the crossing. Along the margins of the older bed there has 
been much more sedimentation, and a considerable part of its sur- 
face has become entirely concealed by debris washed over it. 

Age. — The younger lava flowed out upon the main body of valley 
fill and is clearly of less age than all except the most recently de- 
posited parts of the fill. This fact and the evidences of age already 
given prove that it was erupted either in Recent time or very near 
the, close of the Pleistocene epoch. 

The older lava has been in existence several times as long as the 
younger. It is not directly related to the main body of valley fill 
but its close conformity to the existing topography and the other 
evidences that have been given prove pretty conclusively that it is 
much younger than the basin itself and much younger than the oldest 
valley fill. It was probably erupted late in the Pleistocene epoch. 

Both beds of basalt are very much younger than the Tertiary 
igneous rocks, the latter having been erupted before the present 
topography came into existence and having suffered a relatively 
enormous amount of weathering and erosion. The age of the 
younger basalt is at least several hundred years, but in all prob- 
ability not more than a few thousand years ; the age of the older 
basalt is probably at least a few thousand years and is perhaps 
several tens of thousands of years ; the age of the Tertiary eruptives 
is probably not less than several hundred thousand years and may 
be several millions of years. 

STRUCTURE. 
FAULTS. 

Distribution. — The pre- Quaternary rocks have been extensively 
deformed, the deformation being expressed chiefly in -a series of 
great faults. In various places the strata have been bent or 
folded without breaking, but in the major deformations they were 
broken into huge blocks which were tilted and displaced with ref- 
erence to each other. Most of the principal faults of the region 
have a general north-south trend, but in some parts the trend is 
northwest or northeast or even approaching due east and west. 

San Andreas- Sacramento section. — The steep west side of the Sac- 
ramento Mountains and the equally steep east side of the San An- 



GEOLOGY. 75 

dreas Mountains are no doubt two immense fault scarps (PI. XVII, 
p. 54). In the Sacramento Mountains the strata dip gently toward 
the east, whereas in the San Andreas Mountains essentially the same 
strata dip somewhat more steeply toward the west. In each range 
the edges of the beds, several thousand feet thick, are exposed on the 
side facing the desert, but in the intervening space occupied by the 
desert the entire thick rock series has disappeared. It was con- 
ceived by Herrick 1 that the formations were bent into a huge but 
gentle arch whose limbs were formed by the strata of the opposite 
ranges and whose keystone was in the position now occupied by the 
desert, as shown by the dotted lines in figure 18. According to this 
conception the strata broke along two parallel lines, allowing the 
keystone to drop and thereby producing the low desert and the two 
fault scarps that face each other. Herrick at first supposed that the 
keystone had dropped only to the level of the desert plain, but he 
afterward realized that it must have dropped much lower and that 
it is now deeply covered with debris. The fault on the east side 

SAN ANDREAS SACRAMENTO 

MTS. , . MTS 

s a b s' , 



A 



V393h DESERT 



a' o 



Figure 18. — Diagram showing hypothetical structure of the San Andreas-Sacramento 
section. AA', including the broken lines, shows original structure of the arch ; BB', 
present position of the keystone part of the arch ; aa' and W, fault planes. Arrows 
show direction of movement when faulting took place ; ss', present surface. 

was not a single break but slipping seems to have occurred along at 
least two or three fault planes. The limestone buttes, from Cerrito 
Tularosa to the Two Buttes of the Tres Hermanos group (Pis. I and 
II, in pocket), in which the upper beds of the Manzano group are 
exposed, furnish some tangible evidence that the vanished rock 
strata do indeed lie beneath the desert sediments, but the deep wells 
near Alamogordo and Dog Canyon show that they have in general 
become buried to great depths since- the faulting took place. The 
buttes also indicate that the arch itself was broken and faulted. 

Oscuro-Sierra Blanca section. — North of the Sacramento and San 
Andreas ranges the earth's crust was broken into a number of blocks, 
which, like the Sacramento block, dip toward the east and expose 
their broken edges on their west sides (PL XVII, p. 54) . The frac- 
tures occurred along parallel lines having a general north-south 

1 Lake Otero, an ancient salt lake basin in southeastern New Mexico : Am. Geology, 
vol. 34, pp. 175-179, 1904. 



76 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

trend, and the present structure was apparently produced by the 
east side of each block slipping downward along the fault plane pro- 
duced by the fracture. These blocks are smaller than the Sacra- 
mento block and the displacement of most of them is less, but their 
dip is generally greater, being in many places about 20° and locally 
much more. 

The two major fault blocks west of the lava beds are formed by 
the Little Burro and Oscuro ranges, each of which is probably itself 
broken into several smaller blocks, among which there has been some 
displacement. It is not obvious, without more careful study of the 
stratigraphy, to what extent the hogbacks on the east sides of these 
ranges are fault scarps or to what extent they were developed by 
the erosion of alternately hard and soft strata. The displacements 
were not great enough to prevent the general succession from older 
to younger beds in the direction of the dip, but they introduce uncer- 
tainty as to the actual thickness of the series because it is not always 
evident whether the strata that outcrop in parallel ridges are simi- 
lar beds resting stratigraphically on each other or the same beds 
whose outcrops are repeated by faulting. The occurrence of slicken- 
sides at Estey indicates faulting in that vicinity. 

The largest Cretaceous escarpments east of the lava beds, such as 
Phillips Hills, Godfrey Hills, and Willow Hill, are believed to be 
the upthrow sides of fault blocks. Slickensides were observed in 
the escarpment of Willow Hill and in the escarpment north of 
Coyote. 

Northern section. — In much of the northern part of Tularosa 
Basin the formations lie nearly horizontal and have apparently not 
been greatly faulted or otherwise deformed. This is true of a great 
part of the hill country west of the lava beds, the Chupadera Pla- 
teau, the plain east of the plateau, and the Mesa Jumanes. Gentle 
dips observed in small outcrops are here not significant of the gen- 
eral structure because of the undermining and sinking of the strata 
where the gypsum beds have been dissolved. The escarpment at 
the east edge of the Chupadera Plateau and the hill country is 
probably due to deformation. Steep dips were observed near the 
margin, but they are not everywhere in the same direction. In one 
locality west of Gran Quivira there is a westward dip of about 
45° ; in the large canyon 5 miles north of the Cerros Prietos the 
dip is toward the east, but changes within a short distance from 
only a few degrees to nearly 45°, and near the big cave on the 
west side of the younger lava bed (PI. VI, p. 26) the dip changes 
abruptly from practically zero to fully 50° east. These acute dips 
seem to be local, the general position of the beds throughout the 
region being nearly horizontal. 



GEOLOGY. 77 

Age. — The principal faulting occurred after the Cretaceous strata 
had been deposited. Keyes has reported a structural unconformity 
between the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks in the Chupadera 
Plateau, and it is possible that such structural unconformity may 
exist in Tularosa Basin, indicating deformation during the interval 
between the Carboniferous and Mesozoic periods of sedimentation. 
In general, however, the Carboniferous rocks appear to show no 
greater deformation than the Mesozoic, and it seems certain that 
any deformation between the two periods was gentle as compared 
Avith that following the Cretaceous period. 

UNCONFORMITIES. 

The two great unconformities of the region are at the base of the 
Paleozoic sediments and at the base of the valley fill. The Paleozoic 
sediments were deposited on a granite surface that had been worn 
nearly level. The edge of this ancient surface can at present be 
seen just below the sedimentary beds in the San Andreas, Little 
Burro, and Oscuro ranges. If these beds were restored to the hori- 
zontal position in which they must have been deposited the under- 
lying granite surface would be nearly level in the region where it 
is now exposed. The valley fill was deposited on a surface that had 
been made exceedingly irregular by faulting and subsequent erosion. 

VOLCANIC STRUCTURES. 

The volcanic structures include dikes, sills, batholiths, lava beds, 
and volcanic cones. The Tertiary volcanic activity is probably 
closely related in time and cause to the post- Cretaceous faulting. 
Some of the intrusive sills appear to have been faulted with the 
sedimentary beds between which they lie and therefore to be older 
than the faulting movements, but the eruption of the batholithic 
bodies on the east side of the basin no doubt caused extensive de- 
formation that was practically contemporaneous with the volcanism. 
The two flows of Quaternary basalt and their volcanic cones, all much 
younger than the principal faults, appear to have been erupted along 
a fracture plane that produced a zone of weakness through which the 
lava escaped. 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 

PRE-CARBONIFEROUS EROSION. 

The deposition of the Paleozoic sediments was preceded by a long 
era of erosion, during which rocks of great thickness were removed, 
the deep-seated granite was exposed, and the region was worn down 
to a nearly level country. 



78 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



The granite must have been originally covered by other rocks 
because it can be formed only at great depths. There is nothing in 
this region to indicate the nature of the rocks that lay above the 
granite and were worn away during the period of erosion, but in the 
regions both north and south they appear to have consisted in part 
of clastic sediments now hardened into quartzite. 

At the close of the long period of erosion the ocean encroached 
upon the region from the south. The area near El Paso was sub- 
merged as early as the Cambrian period, when sandy sediments 
were laid down there, and it was also under water in the Ordovician 
and Silurian periods, when limestones were formed, but it is not 
known to have received any sediments during the Devonian period. 
The sea may have extended into a part of the area covered by Tula- 
rosa Basin at certain times in the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, 
or Devonian, but there is as yet no proof of submergence during 
any of these periods. 

CARBONIFEROUS SEDIMENTATION. 

The first known submergence of the area now occupied by Tula- 
rosa Basin took place in the Mississippian epoch of the Carbonifer- 
ous period, when the sea covered at least the eastern part of the re- 
gion as far north as Alamogordo, and crinoids and other limestone- 
producing organisms flourished in its clear waters. 

After the Mississippian epoch came the Pennsylvanian, during 
which the entire region was submerged and covered with thou- 
sands of feet of marine sediments. In the first part of the Pennsyl- 
vanian epoch the conditions seem to have been in general such as are 
normally found in the sea, and limestones, sandstones, marls, and 
shales of ordinary types were formed. Only locally swampy condi- 
tions prevailed, forming peat bogs, the remnants of which exist 
to-day as thin coal seams. Later the conditions changed in such a 
manner that great quantities of red sandstone and shale with some 
gypsum were deposited, the sediments apparently coming from the 
north. Toward the close of this long epoch limestone, sandstone, 
and shale of less striking colors were formed, but great quantities 
of gypsum were also deposited. It is generally believed that gypsum 
beds have been formed in basins whose waters were partly or wholly 
cut off from the ocean and subjected to great concentration, and 
that red beds associated with gypsum indicate aridity. The many 
alternations in the different kinds of deposits within the Pennsyl- 
vanian series give some conception of the great number of physical 
changes that the region must have undergone during this epoch. 

POST-CARBONIFEROUS EROSION. 

Near the close of the Carboniferous period the region apparently 
emerged from the sea, and from the absence or very meager repre- 



GEOLOGY. 79 

sentation of Triassic, Jurassic, and Lower Cretaceous formations 
the inference may be drawn that it probably remained dry land 
during most of the Mesozoic era prior to the Upper Cretaceous. 
According to Keyes there was some deformation and volcanic ac- 
tivity in the Chupadera Plateau during this interval of emergence, 
but for the region as a whole there was probably only a gentle 
uplift that added this part of the State to the continental area and 
subjected it to moderate erosion. 

CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTATION. 

During at least the later half of the Cretaceous period a part 
of the region, and possibly all of it, was once ^iore submerged and 
covered with sediments. The sea of this period was for the most 
part shallow and muddy, and hence shales and sandstones were 
chiefly formed, and subaerial deposition probably also took place. 
Temporarily the waters cleared to such an extent that few sedi- 
ments were deposited except those derived from the remains of 
lime-secreting organisms, and at these times limestones were formed. 
Swamp conditions were characteristic of parts of the period, and 
here, as elsewhere in the West, coal was formed in Cretaceous time. 

POST-CRETACEOUS VOLCANISM, DEFORMATION, EROSION, AND NONMARINE 

SEDIMENTATION. 

After the deposition of the Cretaceous sediments some notable 
events took place. The region was raised above the water, the rocks 
were broken and faulted, and great quantities of lava were intruded 
into or beneath the sedimentary beds and in some places were per- 
haps thrown out upon the surface. As a result mountains were 
formed and the basin began to assume its character as a definite 
physiographic feature. The faulting movements were probably con- 
tinued intermittently during a long time, perhaps during the entire 
Tertiary period and practically to the present. 

So soon as the land emerged from the sea it was subjected to 
weathering and erosion, and when the deformation had progressed 
far enough to produce mountains the erosive activity was inten- 
sified. During this period of erosion, extending from the Cretaceous 
period to the present time, immense quantities of Cretaceous and 
Carboniferous sediments and of igneous rock were removed. At 
certain stages the basin may have had a true drainage outlet toward 
the south, but there is no clue as to the amount of rock waste carried 
out of the region by streams. A vast quantity of debris has, how- 
ever, accumulated in the depression presumably formed by the 
sinking of the great earth block between the Sacramento and San 
Andreas mountains and on some higher ground. The erosion, 



80 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

transportation, and deposition of so much material must have occu- 
pied a long time, and it is not improbable that the oldest valley fill 
was formed before the beginning of the Quaternary period. The 
accumulation of the valley fill implies more or less aridity, for in 
regions having humid climate the drainage is generally vigorous 
enough to sweep away most of the debris produced by weathering. 

Several lines of evidence indicate that at one or more periods in 
the past the basin held a bod}' of water, but this evidence is too 
indefinite to warrant statements as to the depth and extent of these 
water bodies. That the last lake disappeared by evaporation is 
shown by the gypsum, salt, and sodium sulphate which it left behind. 

Since the lake disappeared several changes have taken place. The 
wind has formed the depressions occupied by the alkali flats, and 
has deposited the excavated material in dunes, chiefly of gypsum 
sand. After the alkali-flat depressions came into existence the flood 
waters eroded the arroyos directly tributary to these depressions. 
The mid-slope arroyos are older and were formed before the white 
sands were well developed, possibly while the lake existed. The last 
eruption of basalt Avas probably postlacustrine; the earlier eruption 
probably occurred while the lake existed, or before. 

The following changes are taking place at the present time: (1) 
Weathering on the mountains, buttes, and lava beds; (2) stream 
erosion on the mountains, buttes, older lava bed, upper parts of the 
stream-built slopes, and areas near the alkali flats; (3) stream depo- 
sition on the lower parts of the slopes, on the borders of the lava 
beds, and to some extent in the mid-slope arroyos and the alkali 
flats; (4) wind erosion at the margins of the alkali-flat depressions 
and in other localities; (5) eastward migration of the white sands 
and quartz sands; (6) the formation of sink holes as a result of the 
solution and removal of gypsum by ground water; and (7) the pre- 
cipitation of gypsum and other soluble minerals through the evapo- 
ration of ground water on the alkali flats, the floors of the mid-slope 
and low-level arroyos and other wet areas. 

PRECIPITATION. 

RECOBDS. 

Rainfall observations were begun at Fort Bliss, near El Paso, in 
August, 1850, and were continued, with interruptions, until 1861. 
They were resumed after the Civil War and were continued, with 
some interruptions, until the close of 1876. In July, 1878, a weather 
station was established at El Paso, and the observations since that 
date furnish a complete record covering a period of over 30 years. 

Observations were begun at Fort Stanton in January, 1856, and 
nearly complete records exist for 34 out of the 56 years which elapsed 



PKECIPITATIOET. 



81 



between that date and January, 1912. The principal interruptions 
were from 1861 to 1868, 1873 to 1881, and 1896 to 1899, inclusive. 

Observations were made at Whiteoaks from 1896 to 1901, and again 
in 1905 and 1906. They were begun at Alamogordo and Cloudcroft 
soon after the founding of these towns, and were continued until 
the present time, giving a nearly complete record of 11 years for 
Alamogordo and 9 years for Cloudcroft. The records of these two 
points are of sufficient length to be of great value, especially if they 
are interpreted in connection with the longer records for El Paso 
and Fort Stanton. 

Since July, 1909, observations have been regularly made at most 
of the stations of the El Paso & Southwestern Kailroad between 
El Paso and Tucumcari. The data obtained from this series of 
observations are already valuable, and the records will in a few 
years become much more valuable if the observations are continued. 

Precipitation (in inches) at stations in and near Tularosa Basin, N. Mex. 

Alamogordo (altitude, 4,338 feet). 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


TotaL 


1901 


0.15 
T. 
.30 
.50 

1.02 
.85 

1.45 

1.15 
.95 
.40 
.21 

.63 


1.35 
.16 

1.00 
.10 

2.45 
.74 
.07 
.30 
T. 
.00 

1.96 

.74 


0.35 
.22 
.40 
.00 

1.85 
.26 
T. 
.42 

1.00 
.20 
.62 

.48 


0.41 
.00 
T. 
.00 

3.34 
.99 
.35 

1.29 
.00 
.12 
.84 

.67 


0.22 
T. 

.48 
T. 
T. 
.27 
.23 
.08 
.00 
.04 
.94 

.21 


0.38 
.17 

1.30 
.13 

1.84 
T. 
.78 
.13 
.17 

1.00 
.54 

.59 


1.47 

1.38 
.83 
.81 

2.88 
.72 
.93 

4.30 
.62 
.99 

2.75 

1.61 


1.14 
3.39 
1.48 
2.01 

.41 
1.91 
3.74 
3.06 
1.88 
4.05 

.59 

2.15 


1.18 

.53 
1.16 
2.10 
1.78 

.42 
1.74 

.26 
1.14 

T. 
2.31 

1.15 


2.59 
.65 
.00 

2.38 
.34 
.43 
.84 
.19 
.13 
.70 

1.46 

.88 


2.13 
.15 
.00 
.17 

2.75 

2.22 
.75 
.83 
.02 

1.10 
.18 

.94 


0.10 
.60 

T. 

.75 

.86 

2.35 

T. 

T. 
.94 
.05 
.29 

.54 


11.47 


1902 


7.25 


1903 


6.95 


1904 


8.95 


1905 


19.52 


1906 


11.16 


1907 


10.88 


1908 


12.11 


1909 


6.85 


1910 


8.65 


1911 


12.69 


Average 


10.59 







Ancho (altitude, 6,112 feet). 



1909 














3.00 

.95 

4.11 


0.80 
2.28 
2.16 


0.70 
.00 
.94 


0.19 

.15 

1.04 


0.10 
.15 

T. 


1.37 
.21 
.62 




1910 


0.07 
.31 


0.00 
.74 


T. 
0.56 


T. 
1.15 


0.00 
.02 


0.15 
1.18 


3.96 


1911 


12.83 







Carrizozo (altitude, 5,429 feet). 



1908 












0.76 

1.01 

.26 

.70 


2.98 

2.58 

.28 

3.61 


2.20 
2.67. 
2.51 
1.04 


0.20 
.26 
.13 

1.90 


0.35 
.10 
.60 
.69 


0.65 
.00 
.05 
.02 


.0.30 
.75 
.00 
.44 




1909 

1910 


0.40 
.50 
T. 


0.51 

T. 

1.23 


1.37 
.00 
.40 


0.00 

.35 

1.13 


T. 

T. 
T. 


9.65 

4.68 


1911 


11.16 







Cloudcroft (altitude, 8,650 feet). 



1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911. 



Average . 



1.23 
.99 


0.50 
4.60 


1.45 
.90 












2.26 
1.85 


0.14 
.50 


1.31 

.00 


2.00 
.28 


0.15 


1.20 


4.01 


0.66 


2.98 


.85 


.10 


T. 


.50 


.60 


1.63 


4.23 


3.69 


6.16 


4.37 


.55 


1.36 


3.20 


4.05 


2.12 


3.35 


.00 


1.12 


2.87 


1.85 


4.54 


.99 


5.69 


2.54 


1.00 


1.72 


1.47 


1.60 


1.17 


T. 


3.35 


3.36 


5.44 


1.29 


3.55 


4.73 


6.32 


.43 


1.50 


.83 


1.82 


1.80 


4.50 


3.86 


1.44 


4.55 


4.00 


.21 


1.96 


2.00 


1.00 


.53 


.07 


.00 


2.68 


7.61 


.39 


.25 


.80 


.10 


1.10 


2.40 


2.10 


.00 


.00 


1.30 


4.69 


3.34 


2.77 


.52 


.20 


.55 


.90 


T. 


.30 


.27 


.10 


1.84 


2.71 


7.31 


.88 


.68 


.15 


.75 


.20 


3.11 


.85 


.40 


T. 


1.22 


6.06 


1.06 


3.99 


1.80 


.33 


1.39 


1.47 


1.89 


1.16 


.85 


.55 


1.43 


3.53 


3.90 


2.90 


1.46 


1.56 


1.34 



18.12 
24.04 
32.32 
28.68 
31.26 
17.39 
18.97 
15.89 
20.41 

22.29 



48731°— wsp 343 — 15- 



82 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



Precipitation (in inches) at stations in and near Tularosa Basin, N. Mex. — Con. 

Corona (altitude, 6,666 feet). 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1909 














2.93 
1.40 


3.35 

2.59 

.60 


1.63 

.50 

1.00 


1.29 
.65 
.83 


0.25 
.50 
.39 


1.08 

.05 

1.08 




1910 


0.53 
.21 


1.62 
1.63 


0.35 
.99 


T. 
1.98 


0.12 
.48 


0.61 
1.48 


8.92 


1911 









Coyote (altitude, 5,800 feet). 



1909 














1.10 

.86 
5.38 


2.99 
3.03 
2.42 


0.34 

.15 

2.49 


0.33 

.49 

1.20 


0.10 

1.04 

.04 


1.62 
.20 
.82 




1910 


0.29 
.28 


0.32 
.79 


0.20 
.51 


0.24 
.63 


0.22 
.26 


1.70 
.61 


8.74 


1911 


12.43 







Duran (altitude, 6,272 feet). 



1908 
















5.49 
2.81 
2.61 


0.68 
.50 
.30 

1.28 


0.10 

1.12 

.79 

.45 


1.30 
.15 
.50 
.72 


0.03 
.40 
T. 
.66 




1909 


0.19 
T. 

.22 


0.27 

.47 

2.05 


2.24 
T. 
.85 


0.02 

T. 

1.37 


0.36 
T. 
.33 


0.99 

.76 

2.15 


0.64 
2.36 
7.68 


9.69 


1910 


7.79 


1911 









El Paso, Tex. 1 (altitude, 3,762 feet). 



1850 
















0.70 
2.49 


0.05 


0.60 


4.00 


1.10 




1851 


6.66 


0.90 


0.00 


0.00 


0.70 


0.02 


1.05 




1852-53 












1854 














.10 
.16 
2.20 
1.52 
1.52 
1.60 
.53 


5.71 
1.12 
3.38 
3.73 
2.42 
.22 
.08 


3.70 
7.22 
7.00 
4.15 

.40 
1.11 

.18 


1.54 

1.05 

.00 

2.87 

.00 

.70 


.00 
1.25 
.75 
.07 
.01 
.95 
.20 


.50 
.00 
.00 




1855 


.00 
.33 
.00 
.25 
.10 
T. 
.40 


.00 
5.55 
.50 
.15 
.10 
.24 
.00 


2.02 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 


.00 
.00 

.00 
.01 
.01 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 


.05 
.58 
.63 
.19 
.03 
.30 




1856 


21.81 


1857 




1858 


.00 
.00 
.45 


5.00 


1859 


4.83 


I860 




1861 




1862 1864 
























1865 
























.40 
.11 
.07 




1866 


.00 
.04 
.47 


.00 
.19 
.17 


.24 
.05 


T. 
.00 










1.45 
1.29 


.00 
.30 


.15 
.02 




1867 


.05 


.00 


.47 


.17 


2.84 


1868 




1869 


.00 

T. 
.00 
.36 
.52 
.08 
T. 


.40 
.00 
.33 
.05 
.07 
.00 
T. 
T. 


1.30 

.04 

1.54 

1.83 

1.34 

.26 

.80 

.50 


.26 
1.43 
1.20 
2.72 

.56 

.50 
1.80 

T. 


5.14 
4.01 
.82 
.04 
.98 
.96 
.92 
4.74 


T. 

.00 
2.64 

.58 

.50 
1.08 
1.87 
3.76 


.58 
.05 
.01 
.32 
.00 
1.38 
.00 
.00 


.24 
T. 
.00 
.06 
1.02 
.54 
.00 
.25 


.00 
.60 
.28 

1.08 
.00 

1.23 
.03 
.00 




1870 


.10 
.59 
1.00 
.64 
.37 
.00 
.21 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.34 
.88 
.00 


.00 
.20 
T. 
.30 
.06 
.10 
.00 




1871 


7.61 


1872 


7.68 


1873 


5.77 


1874 


7.24 


1875 


6.48 


1876 


9.46 


1877 




1878.. 














i.25 
2.47 
6.54 
8.18 
1.26 
2.84 

.46 
1.06 
1.62 

.73 
1.39 
1.59 

.95 

.06 
1.14 
2.08 
1.40 
2.48 
2.73 
2. SS) 
1.46 


2.55 

.35 

3.60 

3.15 

2.82 

1.34 

3.98 

.46 

1.85 

1.68 

1.32 

.04 

3.25 

.13 

.07 

3.15 

.64 

2.01 

1.09 

2.57 

1.00 


.66 

.04 

.80 

1.44 

.40 

2.51 

3.68 

.22 

1.16 

.94 

.49 

2.64 

1.81 

.23 

.12 

2.08 

.40 

.28 

1.48 

2.73 

.50 


1.02 
.95 
.47 

1.45 
.00 

2.03 

5.15 
.46 
.80 
.78 

1.13 
.35 
.41 
T. 
.22 
T. 
.39 
.88 

2.02 
.77 
T. 


.66 
.01 
.02 
.50 

1.46 
.61 
.22 
.31 
.52 
.56 

1.32 
.55 
.35 
T. 
.93 
.02 
.00 

1.05 
.04 
T. 
.16 


.11 

.26 

1.53 
.78 
.00 
.84 

2.07 
.37 
.04 

1.01 
.05 
.00 
.28 
.50 
.61 
.42 
.63 
.31 
.06 
.09 

1.04 




1879 


1.57 

1.01 
.35 
.64 
.10 
.55 
.12 
.31 
.03 
.32 
.76 
.72 
.27 

1.25 
.02 
.33 
.65 

1.63 
.54 
.25 


.83 
T. 
.24 
.78 
.40 
.84 
.03 
.44 
.15 
1.51 
.18 
.02 
.09 
.57 
.52 
.29 
.17 
.14 
.00 
.01 


.18 
.30 
.01 
.38 
2.09 
.33 
.34 
.28 
.32 
.95 
.67 
.01 
.16 
.30 
.31 
.13 
.05 
T. 
.05 
.43 


.07 
.10 
.22 
.00 
.10 
.91 
.04 
T. 
.09 
.74 
.04 
.06 
.00 
.11 
.00 
.01 
T. 
T. 
.14 
.81 


.00 
.00 

1.83 
.10 
.02 
T. 

1.27 
.01 
.13 
.15 
.00 
T. 
.38 
T. 

2. 28 
.01 

2.11 
T. 
.46 
.01 


.08 
.00 
.02 
.43 
.04 
.11 
2.63 
1.03 
.34 
.42 
.28 
.63 
.40 
T. 
T. 
.01 
.21 
.60 
2.17 
.46 


6.81 


1880 


14.37 


1881 


18.17 


1882 


8.27 


1883 


12.92 


1884 


18. 30 


1885 


7.31 


1886 


8.06 


1887 


6.76 


18SS 


9.79 


1889 


7.10 


1890 


8.49 


1891 


2.22 


1892 


5.32 


1893 


10.88 


1894 


4.24 


1895 


10.20 


1896 


9.79 


1897 


12.41 


1898 


6.16 



1 Fort Bliss till December, 1876. 



PRECIPITATION. 

Precipitation (m inches) at stations in and near Tularosa Basin, N. Mex 

El Paso, Tex. — Continued. 



83 

—Con. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1899 


0.06 
.11 
.35 
.57 
.61 
T. 
.86 
.87 
.42 
.10 
.04 
.21 
.36 

.40 


0.03 
.43 
.68 
.01 

1.09 
.01 

1.88 

1.37 
T. 
.26 
.16 
.10 
.96 

.46 


0.23 
.26 
.47 
.00 
.15 
.00 

1.46 
.01 
T. 
.35 
.77 
T. 
.43 

.30 


0.88 
.02 
.47 
.00 
.54 
.00 

1.38 
.40 
.07 
.88 
.00 
T. 
.47 

.20 


T. 
.41 
.05 

T. 
.29 
.06 
.03 
.90 
.10 
.01 

T. 

T. 
.39 

.27 


0.61 
.27 
.39 
.01 

2.50 
.54 

2.12 
T. 
.76 
.00 
.05 

1.35 

2.36 

.62 


3.08 
2.38 
1.05 
3.27 
1.19 

.59 
2.55 
2.02 

.35 
2.07 
1.62 

.60 
3.43 

1.69 


0.91 

.43 

.34 

2.85 

1.73 

2.24 

.53 

4.10 

2.50 

2.55 

.51 

1.18 

.45 

1.82 


0.64 
2.18 

.82 
1.86 
3.52 
3.50 
2.29 
1.18 

.96 
T. 

.60 

.24 
1.00 

1.54 


0.01 

1.23 

2.98 

.31 

.00 

3.51 

1.28 

.44 

2.52 

.12 

.02 

.02 

.43 

.81 


0.64 
.23 

1.05 
.49 
.00 
.01 

2.40 

2.50 
.73 
.45 
T. 
.03 
.35 

.54 


0.21 
T. 
.03 
.78 
.01 
.84 
1.02 
1.20 
T. 
.15 
.56 
.30 
.24 

.43 


7.30 


1900 


7.95 


1901 


8.68 


1902 


10.15 


1903 


11.63 


1904 


11.30 


1905 


17.80 


1906 


14.99 


1907 


8.41 


1908 


6.94 


1909 


4.33 


1910 


4.03 


1911 


10.87 


Average 


9.08 







Fort Stanton (altitude, 6,231 feet). 



1856 


0.50 
.67 
.65 
.09 
.39 

1.76 


0.58 
.97 
.12 
.53 

3.55 
.50 


1.59 

.17 

1.47 

1.00 

.08 


0.24 
.62 
.31 
.30 

1.41 
T. 


0.26 
.69 
.70 
.20 
T. 

3.14 


0.88 
1.27 
2.00 
3.19 
1.03 
3.38 


1.99 
4.88 
3.49 
3.30 
1.50 
4.23 


3.62 

9.24 
8.09 
6.93 

2.87 


2.81 
6.14 

.74 

3.77 

.78 


0.19 
2.59 

.47 
2.60 

.08 


2.14 
.87 
.24 
.25 

.75 


2.21 

.59 

.48 

1.65 

1.21 


16. 81 


1857 


28.70 


1858 


18.76 


1859 


23.81 


I860 


13.65 


1861 




1862 
















1863 




























1864 


















1.14 










1865 


























1866 


















1.15 
.50 

1.02 
.05 
.94 

2.10 

3.27 










1867 
















1.50 










1868 
















.88 
2.84 
1.50 
3.02 


.39 
.42 
.00 
.15 
3.54 


.62 
3.92 

.36 
3.00 
2.34 




1869 


.49 

.00 

1.68 

.66 


1.36 
.00 
.07 
.63 


1.18 

2.20 

4.28 

.37 


2.75 
.22 
.00 
.66 


4.17 
.18 
.65 
.00 


3.70 

2.08 

.14 

2.29 


1.44 
4.45 
5.80 

4.78 


2.45 
4.70 
1.13 
3.19 


22.81 


1870 


17.97 


1871 


20.50 


1872 


23.75 


1873-1880 




1881 
















1.05 
1.87 
4.10 
6.98 
2.57 
5.45 
3.49 
4.51 
.89 
2.93 
1.65 
1.41 
4.74 
4.88 
1.61 


2.65 
.70 


2.59 
.00 


.66 
1.21 


.35 
.21 




1882 


.95 
.00 

1.20 
.72 
.36 
.01 
.22 

1.33 


.30 
.00 
.40 
.63 
.17 
.11 

1.09 
.39 
.08 

1.66 
.36 

1.60 
.61 

1.02 


.26 

.70 
.62 
.50 
.25 

2.82 
.86 
.12 
.98 

1.15 
.11 
.27 
.11 


.22 
.00 
.30 
.50 

1.50 
.04 

1.69 
.24 
.57 
.02 
.27 
.00 
.96 
T. 


T. 
T. 

1.73 
.62 
.10 
.72 
.25 
.17 
.00 

2.83 
.11 
.72 

1.02 

1.08 


.50 
.10 

2.11 

1.35 

1.61 

2.50 

.88 

2.51 

1. 05 

2.37 

.45 

.45 

1.07 

1.45 


.56 
.95 
2.48 
3.17 
4.71 
2.59 
1.60 
2.36 
1.92 
1.30 
2.87 
3.57 
1.35 
6.03 


6.78 


1883 




1884 


3.21 

1.36 

4.29 

4.21 

1.16 

2.76 

1.52 

1.33 

.32 

3.47 

.15 

.65 


2.65 

.18 

1.32 

1.75 

2.14 

1.90 

.40 

.12 

1.76 

.04 

1.46 

.78 


.30 

.50 

.15 

.17 

1.53 

1.04 

1.85 

.19 

.65 

.20 

T. 

1.24 


1.44 

.35 

.08 

.93 

.15 

.04 

1.06 

1.23 

1.43 

.15 

.37 

.05 


23.50 


1885 


12.57 


1886 


20.24 


1887 


16.77 


1888 


18.04 


1889 


14.49 


1890 


.37 

1.00 

.56 

.75 
.00 

.47 


11.87 


1891 


14.68 


1892 


11.34 


1893 


15.80 


1894 


12.14 


1895 


14.47 


1896 




1897 




























1898 




























1899 




























1900 


1.00 
.10 
.05 
.36 
.02 
.40 
.35 
.25 
.15 
.18 
.10 
.15 

.49 


.25 

2.00 

.38 

.75 

.10 

1.32 

.35 

.52 

.60 

.20 

.37 

1.82 

.71 


.48 
.F.O 
.22 
.17 
.03 

1.75 
T. 
T. 
.15 

2.02 
.35 
.80 

.81 


.90 
.90 
.00 
.20 
.15 

2.04 

1.40 
.15 

1.15 
.00 
.44 

1.99 

.62 


1.09 
.64 

1.88 
.38 
.14 
T. 
.02 
.20 
.4S 
.20 
.18 
.75 

.70 


1.63 
1.34 

.24 
3.41 
1.50 
2.79 

.25 
3.35 

.19 

.67 
2.85 
3.11 

1.66 


1.98 
3.25 

2.28 
.62 
2.87 
5.62 
4.38 
2.74 
2.49 
3.28 
1.57 
5.62 

3.01 


2.18 
1.85 
1.87 
1.55 
2.92 
2.12 
4.34 
4.58 
6.46 
3.54 
4.57 
1.83 

3.53 


6.06 
2.00 

.48 
1. 55 
6.06 

T. 
1.95 
1.85 
1.32 

.59 

.90 
1.50 

1.94 


1.43 

1.76 

1.81 

.48 

2.68 

.50 

1.45 

2.64 

.05 

.82 

.56 

2.28 

1.36 


.40 
2.85 
.16 
.00 
.08 
4.25 
.86 
.99 
.75 
T. 
.77 
.16 

.79 


.36 

.95 

.57 

.05 

.35 

1.80 

1.68 

02 

T. 

.25 

.23 

.47 

.85 


17 76 


1901. 


18 14 


1902 


9.94 


1903 


9 52 


1904 


16 90 


1905 


22 59 


1906 

1907 


17.03 
17 29 


1908 


13 79 


1909 


11 75 


1910 


12 89 


1911 


20 48 


Average 


16 47 







84 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



Precipitation (in inches) at stations in and near Tularosa Basin, N. Hex. — Con. 

Newman (altitude, 3,989 feet). 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1909 














0.47 

.29 

2.91 


0.69 
1.32 

.48 


1.69 
.37 

.27 


0.60 
.00 
.31 


T. 
.75 
.10 


0.63 

.45 




1910 


T. 
0.18 


0.10 
1.77 


T. 
1.55 


T. 
1.74 


T. 
T. 


1.45 
.90 


4.73 


1911 











Gallinas (altitude, 6,635 feet). 



1909 














1.76 

.62 
3.40 


2.47 
1.03 
1.85 


0.56 

T. 

1.94 


0.97 
1.71 
1.03 


0.16 
.72 
.21 


0.60 

.30 

1.09 




1910 


0.49 
.20 


0.65 
2.00 


0.30 

.48 


0.47 
1.71 


o.io 

.00 


1.14 
1.82 


7.53 


1911 


15.73 



Tularosa (altitude, 4,436 feet). 



1908 








0.58 
T. 
.24 


0.06 
T. 
.03 


0.01 
.22 

.97 


1.82 

1.85 
.41 


5.25 
.99 

2.47 


0.22 

1.22 

.21 


0.27 
.09 
.52 


0.65 
.03 
.16 
.00 


0.04 
.19 
.08 

.25 




1909 


0.12 
.28 
.22 


0.24 

.00 

1.62 


1.03 
.31 

.78 


5.98 


1910 


5.68 


1911 























Oscuro (altitude, 5,016 feet). 



1909 


0.10 
.33 
.22 


0.21 
.01 

1.96 


1.03 

T. 

.80 


0.00 
.10 
.76 


0.05 
.16 

.42 


0.52 
.27 
.97 


2.11 
.54 

4.83 


1.35 

1.54 

.83 


0.47 

.08 

2.62 


0.15 

1.01 

.86 


0.01 
.75 
.11 


0.28 
.26 

.08 


6.28 


1910 


5.05 


1911 


14.46 







Orogrande (altitude, 4,171 feet). 



1909 














0.17 

.30 

3.70 


0.12 

1.11 

.62 


0.08 

.25 

1.10 


0.,04 
.20 

.74 


0.00 
.60 
.07 


0.82 
.05 
.45 




1910 


T. 
0.32 


T. 
1.62 


0.01 
1.24 


T. 
0.55 


T. 
0.54 


1.68 
.97 


4.20 


1911 


11.92 



Tecolote (altitude, 6,539 feet). 



1909 














3.35 

.15 

4.37 


2.42 
3.95 
2.35 


0.53 

.44 

2.49 


1.15 

.42 
.89 


0.11 

1.15 

.16 


0.25 
.37 
.75 




1910 

1911 


0.58 
.23 


6.84 
2.03 


0.42" 

.85 


6.37 
1.68 


0.01 
.65 


1.45 
.68 


10.15 
17.13 







Three Rivers (altitude, 4,559 feet). 



1909 














1.32 

.09 

2.52 


0.73 

1.65 

.45 


0.44 
.13 

2.62 


0.11 
.63 

.87 


T. 

0.66 

T. 


0.1S 
.02 
.29 




1910 


0.20 
.22 


T. 
1.87 


0.09 
.33 


0.32 
.62 


0.32 
.08 


6.65 
1.18 


4.76 


1911 


11.05 







Torrance (altitude, 6,433 feet). 



1909 














3.14 

.52 

11.54 


3.85 
4.14 
2.30 


0.80 

.11 

1.99 


0.20 
.39 

.88 


0.85 
.50 

.42 






1910 


T. 
0.19 


0.89 
2.84 


0.10 
.05 


0.10 
1.22 


T. 
0.04 


0.05 
1.08 


6.40 
.96 


7.20 


1911 


23.51 







PRECIPITATION. 



85 



Precipitation (in inches) at stations in and near Tularosa Basin, N. Mex. — Con. 

Whiteoaks (altitude, 6,470 feet). 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1896 ... 










T. 

1.27 

.00 

.00 

1.51 

1.68 


0.45 
1.84 
5.21 
.69 
.77 
1.35 


2.01 
1.78 
5.60 
5.53 
1.67 


2.22 
2.28 
3.54 
1.72 
1.10 


1.17 

2.85 

1.24 

.82 

3.99 


4.01 
.99 
.75 
T. 

1.56 


0.34 
.06 
.25 

1.25 
.30 


1.12 

.78 

.90 

1.10 

1.15 




1897 


2.32 
2.21 
.90 
1.05 
1.52 


6.55 
.41 
.50 
.65 

2.53 


1.21 

1.32 

.80 

.70 

.67 


0.45 
1.04 
.05 
1.66 
1.14 


16.38 


1898 


22.47 


1899 


14.36 


1900 


16.11 


1901 












































































1905 


.50 
.64 


1.61 
.43 


2.18 
.30 


4.97 
1.62 


.01 
.21 


2.23 
.19 


2.47 
2.11 


1.85 
2.82 


1.32 
1.51 


.47 
1.73 


4.13 
1.62 


2.50 
1.80 


24.24 


1906 


14.98 






Average 


1.31 


.95 


1.03 


1.56 


.58 


1.59 


3.02 


2.22 


1.84 


1.36 


1.28 


1.34 


18.08 







AVERAGE PRECIPITATION. 

In the following table are given the average amounts of precipi- 
tation at the stations having records of sufficient length to make the 
averages of much value : 

Averages of precipitation, in inches, at stations in and near Tularosa 

Basin, N. Mex. 





Length 


























An- 


Station. 


of 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 




record. 






























Years. 




























Alamogordo. 


11 


0.63 


0.74 


0.48 


0.67 


0.21 


0.59 


1.61 


2.15 


1.15 


0.88 


0.94 


0.54 


10.59 


Cloudcroft .. 


9 


1.47 


1.89 


1.16 


.85 


.55 


1.43 


3.53 


3.90 


2.90 


1.46 


1.56 


1.34 


22.29 


El Paso 


43 


.40 


.46 


.30 


.20 


.27 


.62 


1.69 


1.82 


1.54 


.81 


.54 


.43 


9.08 


Fort Stanton 


34 


.49 


.71 


.81 


.62 


.70 


1.66 


3.01 


3.53 


1.94 


1.36 


.79 


.85 


16.47 


Whiteoaks.. 


6 


1.31 


.95 


1.03 


1.56 


.58 


1.59 


3.02 


2.22 


1.84 


1.36 


1.28 


1.34 


18.08 



El Paso and Fort Stanton have the longest records, and for this 
reason their averages are the most reliable. Since the averages for 
the different stations are based on the records for different years, 
these averages are not strictly comparable. Thus, the annual aver- 
age for Whiteoaks is higher than that for Fort Stanton, although 
during the years that observations were made at both places slightly 
more rain fell at Fort Stanton than at Whiteoaks. In other words, 
the period during which observations were made at Whiteoaks was 
probably a period of more than normal rainfall. If, in order to 
compare Alamogordo, Cloudcroft, El Paso, and Fort Stanton, their 
records are considered for the nine years during which observations 
were made at all four points, it is found that their annual averages 
are, respectively, 10.86 inches, 22.29 inches, 10.03 inches, and 15.80 
inches. These averages, when compared with those given in the 
table above, indicate that the precipitation of the last nine years 
was slightly above normal at El Paso and slightly below normal at 



86 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



Fort Stanton, but they indicate much more conclusively that the 
records at Alamogordo and Cloudcroft are long enough to be fairly 
representative. The data at hand establish the facts that at both 
El Paso and Alamogordo the normal precipitation is not far from 
10 inches a year, that at Cloudcroft it is about twice this amount, and 
that at Fort Stanton and Whiteoaks it is intermediate. 

DISTRIBUTION EROM YEAR TO YEAR. 

Although the average annual precipitation at the same point does 
not appear to differ greatly for periods of 10 or more years, there are 
radical differences in the amounts of precipitation in different years. 
In the 6-year record for Whiteoaks the annual precipitation ranges 
between 14.36 and 24.24 inches; in the 9-year record for Cloudcroft 
it ranges between 15.89 and 32.32 inches; in the 11-year record for 
Alamogordo it ranges between 6.85 and 19.52 inches; in the 34-year 
record for Fort Stanton it ranges between 6.78 and 28.70 inches; 
and in the 43-year record for El Paso it ranges between 2.22 and 
21.81 inches. 

The year of greatest precipitation recorded at El Paso or Fort 
Bliss was 1856, and other years of exceptionally heavy rainfall in 
that locality were 1880, 1881, 1884, 1905, and 1906. The year of 
greatest precipitation recorded at Fort Stanton was 1857, and other 
years of exceptionally heavy rainfall were 1859, 1869, 1872, 1884, 
and 1905. So far as the records for these stations show, the two 
wettest years in the last three decades were 1884 and 1905. The 
records for Whiteoaks, Alamogordo, and Cloudcroft also indicate 
unusually heavy precipitation in 1905. 

The year of least precipitation recorded at El Paso or Fort Bliss 
was 1891, and other very dry years were 1858, 1859, 1867, 1894, 1909, 
and 1910. The year of least precipitation recorded at Fort Stanton 
was 1882, at Alamogordo it was 1909, and at Cloudcroft it was 1910. 

The continuous record of the annual precipitation at El Paso for 
the last 33 years, as plotted in figure 19, clearly shows that the fluc- 
tuations from }^ear to year are very great and very irregular. Thus, 
the record for 1911 and preceding years gives no basis for predicting 
whether 1912 is to be a wet year, a dry year, or a year of normal 
rainfall. There is no doubt some tendency for wet years and dry 
years to occur in groups, but even this indefinite rule has distinct 
exceptions. 

The character of the precipitation curve for the decade from 1901 
to 1910 is well shown by four nearly complete records that agree 
in essentials. A conspicuously humid period marked the middle of 
the decade, and this humid period was preceded and followed by 
periods of great drought. In 1911 the rainfall was for the first 
time in several years somewhat above normal. 



PRECIPITATION. 



87 



PRECIPITATION IN INCHES 




88 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION. 

The principal rainy season in Tularosa Basin is in midsummer, 
generally beginning near the close of. June or in the first half of 
July and continuing into September. From 55 to 60 per cent of the 

precipitation occurs in the 
months of June, July, August, 
and September and from 35 to 
40 per cent in the months of 
July and August. 

The driest season is in the 
spring. Only a little over 10 
per cent of the precipita- 
tion occurs in the months of 
March, April, and May, the 
average amount at El Paso and 
Alamogordo for this entire 
period of three months being 
only about 1 inch. The month 
with least precipitation is May. 
At El Paso out of 48 years for 
which there is a record there 
were 24 years in which practi- 
cally no rain fell in May and 
only 4 years in which the 
rainfall during this month 
amounted to 1 inch. At Ala- 
mogordo there have in the last 
11 years been 4 years in which 
no rain fell in the month of 
May and no year in which the 
rainfall amounted to as much 
as 1 inch, the average being 
about one-fifth of an inch. 

During the late fall and 
winter months there are occa- 
sional rains and siioays, which 
together contribute about one- 
third of the total precipitation. 
Tularosa Basin lies outside 
of the track of most of the 
continental, cyclonic storms 
that control the climatic con- 
ditions farther north. Its winter precipitation is partly produced by 
these storms, but its summer rains are local and are produced by 
ascending currents of hot air which precipitate their moisture when 




saipui 'uoijtfjidpwj 



PRECIPITATION. 



89 



Precipitation in inches 
— nj w 4^ en 



they become chilled at the higher alti- 
tudes. Precipitation of this kind con- 
sists typically of sudden, heavy showers 
that are of short duration and occur at 
irregular intervals. 

The precipitation of this region, like 
that of desert regions in general, is char- 
acterized not only by its average scarcity 
but also by its great irregularity. Much 
more rain falls in some years than in 
others, and much more falls in some 
seasons than in others. The so-called 
rainy season is not uniformly humid but 
generally includes several heavy down- 
pours, between which may intervene pe- 
riods of severe drought. Conversely, 
even the driest seasons may at infrequent 
intervals experience violent and heavy 
rainstorms. (See figs. 20 and 21.) 

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 



The precipitation is irregularly dis- ] 
tributed in space as well as in time. It \ 
is on an average much greater on the I 
high mountains than on the low plain, ' 
and for a given season it may be much « 
greater in one locality than in another \ 
similarly situated. The fall and winter ! 
rains and snows are likely to be more \ 
or less general, but many of the sudden ~ 
summer showers are very local. ; 

The irregularities in the distribution I 
of average precipitation are due mainly 
to topographic irregularities. An area 
of several thousand square miles in the 
midst of a flat region such as the Great 
Plains will have nearly the same average 
precipitation in all parts, but an area of 
equal size with a diversified topography 
such as that of Tularosa Basin is likely 
to have radical local differences in the 
average amount of precipitation. 

In general the precipitation increases with the altitude, but alti- 
tude is not the only controlling factor, and any curve or formula 




90 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

expressing the relation between altitude and precipitation can at 
best be only approximate or of very local application. The precipi- 
tation is probably greater at a given level on one side of a range than 
on the opposite side ; it is probably greater at a given level on a large, 
lofty range than on a small, low range; and it is probably greater 
at a given level near a mountain range than far out on the desert. 

In the vicinity of Alamogordo, at the base of the Sacramento 
Mountains, 4,338 feet above sea level, the average annual precipita- 
tion is 10.59 inches; at Cloudcroft, only 13 miles away, but near the 
crest of the range and 8,650 feet above sea level, the average is 22.29 
inches, or more than double the average at Alamogordo. At Fort 
Stanton, situated on the mesa at the intermediate altitude of 6,231 
feet, the average is 16.47 inches; and at Whiteoaks, situated at an 
estimated altitude of 6,470 feet, the average is about the same as a»t 
Fort Stanton. (See fig. 2.) 

In the following table are given the records of monthly and 
total precipitation for one year at 13 stations maintained by the 
State engineer in the drainage area of La Luz and Fresnal creeks 
(fig. 22), and in figure 23 is shown, by means of a curve, the relation 
of precipitation to altitude in this drainage area as exhibited by these 
records. In figure 24 is reproduced a similar diagram prepared by 
G. E. P. Smith, of the Arizona Experiment Station, giving two 
curves for southeastern Arizona. 1 

Precipitation in thedrainage areas of La Luz and Fresnal creeks Sept. 1, 1911, 

to Aug. 31, 1912. 

[Data furnished by State engineer of New Mexico.] 



Sta- 
tion 
No. 


Location. 


Eleva- 
tion 

above 
sea 

level. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Total 

first 

period. 


1 


Ranger station 


Feet. 
4,950 
6,550 
6,260 
6,650 
6,100 
6.550 
7,240 
7,340 
7,165 
7,300 
9,000 
4,338 
4,430 


0.65 
2.53 
2.38 
1.52 
1.12 
2.12 
.78 

.38 

.46 

3.99 

2.00 

2.31 


1.17 
1.16 
1.57 
1.61 
1.33 
2.03 
1.61 
2.16 
2.05 
1.54 
1.80 
1.25 
1.46 


0.10 
.14 
.13 
.15 
.15 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.33 
.14 
.18 


0.80 

1.11 

1.08 

1.37 

1.06 

.74 

1.57 

1.29 

1.76 

1.76 

1.39 

.38 

.29 


Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 
.06 
.00 
.04 


0.76 
.72 

1.03 
.74 
.39 
.80 
.78 
.74 
.75 

1.42 
.71 
.61 


Inches. 
2.72 


2 


Springer 


5.70 


3 


Malcolm 


5.88 


4 


Carl 


5.68 


5 


Garcia 


4.40 


6 


High Rolls 


5.28 


7 


Snow 


4.76 


8 


Cowgar 


4.23 


9 


Walker 


4.93 


10 


Nelson 


4.51 


11 


Cloudcroft 


8.99 


12 


Alamogordo 


4.48 


13 


1 mile north of Alamogordo. . . 


4.89 



1 Water resources of Rillito Valley, Ariz. : Arizona Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 64, fig. 9, 1910. 



PRECIPITATION. 



91 



Precipitation in the drainage areas of La Luz mid Fresnal creeks Sept. 1, 1911, 

to Aug. 31, 191 2— Continued. 



Sta- 
tion 
No. 


Location. 


Mar. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Total 
second 
period. 


Total 
Sept. 1, 
1911, to 
Aug. 31, 

1912. 


1 


Ranger station 


(a) 

1.28 

1.93 

1.29 

.99 

1.67 

1.89 

1.98 

2.09 

2.11 

.42 

.47 

.47 


(a) 

1.06 

.72 

.91 

.75 

1.06 

1.15 

1.42 

1.22 

1.30 

.59 

.50 

.56 


(a) 

0.11 
.05 
.14 
.10 
.23 
.26 
.39 
.28 
.31 
.30 
.17 
.14 


(a) 

2.02 

.94 

1.49 

1.16 

2.16 

2.54 

2.09 

2.33 

2.42 

3.10 

.55 

.46 


(a) 
2.14 
1.96 
2.55 
2.31 
2.95 
2.45 
2.74 
2.72 
2.80 
4.07 
.15 
.22 


(a) 

4.04 

3.02 

4.68 

3.52 

3.70 

3.79 

4.99 

5.19 

5.28 

6.95 

4.31 

4.11 


Inches. 

(a) 
10.65 

8.62 
11.06 

8.83 
11.77 
12.08 
13.61 
13.83 
14.22 
15.43 

6.15 

5.96 


Inches. 
(a) 


2 


Springer 


16.35 


3 


Malcolm 


14.50 


4 


Carl 


16.74 


5 


Garcia 


13.23 


6 


High Rolls 


17.05 


7 


Snow 


16.84 


8 


Cowgar 


17.84 


9 


Walker 


18.76 


10 


Nelson 


18.73 


11 


Cloudcroft 


24.42 


12 


Alamogordo 


10.63 


13 


1 mile north of Alamogordo. . . 


10.85 



a No record. 

There are no data for determining what part of the entire precipi- 
tation of Tularosa Basin falls within the ascertained range between 
Alamogordo and Cloudcroft. If the precipitation is anywhere 
greater than at Cloudcroft it is over only small areas, such as Sierra 
Blanca Peak. On the other hand, in the interior of the desert the 
precipitation may be con- 



R.IIE. 



siderably less than at Ala- 
mogordo, although there 
are almost no records that 
throw light on this point. 
The available records 
seem to show that the 
precipitation is less at El 
Paso, Newman, and Oro- 
grande than it is at Ala- 
mogordo, but the differ- 
ence does not appear to 
be great. The timber on 
the mountains on the 
west side of the basin 
indicates that the rainfall 
is greater on these moun- 
tains than in the valley 
but less than on the 
Sacramento Mountains and the Sierra Blanca. A belt of timber 
along the top of the Chupadera escarpment shows that the edge of 
this plateau also intercepts more rain than the plain. 

The curves in figure 25, although based on a short period, show 
pretty conclusively that the precipitation increases somewhat toward 




R.IOE. R.IIE. 

APPROXIMATE. SCALE 




5 MILES 

_J 



Figure 22. — Map of drainage areas of La Luz and 
Fresnal creeks, showing location of rain gages and 
automatic stream gages for investigations by the 
State engineer. 



92 



8,000 



,000 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the north. This increase corresponds to an increase in altitude, but 
altitude is probably not the only influencing condition. In going 
northward from the interior of the desert to the Mesa Jumanes sev- 
eral changes in vegetation are observed which probably signify some 
increase in humidity, the desert brush giving way to grass and finally 

^ooo, ! , , f_ , to clumps of cedar and other 

small trees. The abundance of 
trees near the north end of the 
younger lava bed and their 
complete absence farther south 
may also be related to differ- 
ences in rainfall. 

The records of precipitation, 
character of vegetation, and 
other considerations warrant 
the following summary state- 
ment: In the interior of the 
plain south of the younger 
lava bed the average annual 
precipitation is probably less 
than 10 inches; near the mar- 
gins of the plain it is approxi- 
mately 10 inches ; in the moun- 
tain chain on the east side it 
increases with the altitude, and 
near the crests of the highest 
ranges it exceeds 20 inches ; in 
the mountain chain on the 
west side it also increases with 

16 20 24 28 , , . 

Rainfall in inches the altitude but is on an aver- 

pigubb 23.— Diagram showing relation of pre- a*ge less than in the mountains 

cipitation to altitude in drainage areas of La __ + i „ . • -. ,, , . 

Luz and Fresnal creeks, September 1, 1911, OI1 tlie eaSt Slde 5 °n the plain 

to August 31, 1912. Data furnished by north of the lava beds, on the 

State engineer of New Mexico. r*\ i -r>i -i ,i 

Chupadera Plateau, and on the 
Mesa Jumanes it is greater than on the low plain south of the lava 
and probably ranges from about 10 to 15 inches. 



$ 6,000 
d 
> 



5,000 



4,000 











"ll 






8/ 

/ # 9 








3/ 

5 7 


'mi 

2 ° 
















13.' 
12» 











12 



RELATION TO AGRICULTURE AND WATER SUPPLIES. 

On the arable tracts near the top of the Sacramento Mountains, 
where the average precipitation is 20 inches or more, agriculture is 
successfully practiced without irrigation, large yields and a good 
quality of hardy cereals, such as oats, being obtained. On the inter- 
mediate levels, where precipitation is between 15 and 20 inches, 
some success is also had with dry farming. 



PRECIPITATION. 



93 



In the vicinities of Alamogordo and Carrizozo dry farming has 
been pretty extensively tried in the last decade, but, as in other 
parts of the Southwest where the average precipitation is not much 
over 10 inches, it has, on the whole, been unsuccessful, although in 
favorable years good yields of certain crops, especially forage 
plants, have in some localities been obtained. The preponderance of 
summer rainfall is to some extent an advantage, but the deficiency of 




20 24 28 

Inches of rainfall 

Figure 24. — Diagram showing relation of precipitation to altitude in southeastern 
Arizona. The upper curve applies to Cochise and Graham counties ; the lower one to 
Pima and Pinal counties. After G. E. P. Smith. 

rain in the spring and its general irregularity are serious handicaps 
to dry farming. In regions farther north in the United States, 
where a larger proportion of the rain falls in the winter and spring, 
considerable success has been attained by conserving the moisture 
of two years for the raising of a single crop, preferably a winter 
cereal, but in southern New Mexico this method is less feasible and 
the best success is had with quickly maturing summer crops. 



Oroerande 



Newman 



Ei Paso 



94 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The irregularities in rainfall produce irregularities not only in 
the moisture contributed directly to the soil but also in the flow of 
the streams, causing great quantities of water to be discharged at 

irregular intervals 
Feet above sea level from a large num- 

ber of canyons that 
are normally dry. 
3 To increase the 

• agricultural pro- 

* duction of the re- 
g gion it is necessary 
w to supply more 
° evenly to crops the 
g water that is fur- 

. nished so irregu- 

o , 

S larly by the ram- 
g fall and resulting 
a streams. Measures 
£ for accomplishing 
§ this conservation 
3 are (1) proper till- 
t age to hold the 
o. moisture in the soil 
■S for a short time 
| (which by itself has 
w proved inadequate 
~ in this region), (2) 
| construction of res- 
| ervoirs to hold 
a flood waters until 
§> needed, and (3) re- 

5 coverv of under- 
J> ground waters that 
a are stored by natu- 
g ral processes and 

6 are genera 11 v as 
available in seasons 
of drought as in wet 
weather. The fact 

that a supply drawn from wells is available when water is most 
needed gives this kind of supply a peculiar value in supplementing 
rainfall and flood waters. (See section on irrigation, pp. 206-222.) 



Corona 
(Jallinas 

Tecolote 

Aneho 
Coyote 

Carrizozo 



Oscuro 



Three Rivers 



Tularosa 



Alainocordo 




Precipitation, inches 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 95 

WATER IN Y ALLEY FILL. 

AREA AND PROBLEMS. 

The principal water problem in the area underlain by the thick 
deposit of valley fill, 1 which extends from the Rio Grande, in Texas, 
northward to the Phillips Hills on the east side of the lava and 
nearly to the upper crossing on the west side (PL XVII), concerns 
the development of supplies adequate in quantity and quality for 
irrigation. Supplies sufficient in quantity for domestic use and foi- 
st ock can be obtained practically everywhere, although in some parts 
it is difficult to find water that is of sufficiently good quality for do- 
mestic use or even for stock, and in the southern part there is some 
difficulty in satisfactorily finishing wells in sand beds. 

SOURCES OF WATER. 

GENERAL CIRCULATION. 

The general circulation of water is, for convenience, shown graphi- 
cally in figure 26. The atmosphere holds a certain amount of water 



ATMOSPHERIC 
HUMIDITY 

(Vapor)) 




Atmospheric 
zone 



Zone of 
surface waters 



MOISTURE ABOVE 
.WATER TABLE V 

(Capillary water) 



Zone of capillary 

>■ and percolating 

waters 



WATER BELOW WATER TABLE 

(Gravity water) 



I Zone of 
| saturation 



Figure 26. — Diagram showing water zones and general circulation of water. 

in the invisible, gaseous state, which, under certain conditions, is in 
part thrown into the liquid state and forms dew or collects in minute 
drops whose weight is so slight that they are held in suspension in 
the air, forming clouds or fog. If these minute drops become suffi- 
ciently abundant they coalesce and fall as rain, or if the temperature 
is low they crystallize and fall as snow. 

1 The water in the thin mantle of debris that covers the bedrock farther north is dis- 
cussed in connection with the water of the rock formation, pp. 138-175. 



96 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

As is represented in the diagram, the rain and snow are disposed 
of in several ways. A part is returned to the atmosphere by evapo- 
ration; a part runs off in streams and temporary floods; a part is 
absorbed by the capillary pores of the ground and becomes soil mois- 
ture; and a part percolates into pores and crevices and is drawn 
downward by gravity. The streams and floods likewise lose water 
by evaporation, by capillary absorption, and by percolation. If their 
volume is not all dissipated in these ways the surplus is eventually 
discharged into some depression in the surface known as a pond, lake, 
or alkali flat. This surplus is gradually disposed of by evaporation, 
or, in some cases, by percolation or capillary absorption. 

The moisture in the soil is largely returned to the atmosphere by 
direct evaporation or by the transpiration of plants, but in part it 
feeds the currents of water that are percolating to the ground-water 
level or becomes disseminated through minute capillary pores. It 
must also be assumed that the percolating waters are partly absorbed 
on their way from the surface to the zone of saturation by the capil- 
lary pores of the materials that form the walls of the passages 
through which these waters find their way. 

Since the present investigation concerns especially the supply 
below the water table — that is, in the zone of saturation — the prob- 
lem of accessions to and losses from this supply is important. This 
problem involves so many complex factors that even an approxi- 
mate solution is not possible with the data that could be obtained, 
but certain considerations will nevertheless throw light on the 
magnitude of the quantities involved. 

The waters of Tularosa Basin are of course not wholly isolated. 
The atmosphere carries water both into and out from the basin, and 
some ground water probably enters the basin, as in the Sacramento 
Mountains, and some leaves the basin, as at the south end. 

ZONES OF PRECIPITATION, RUN-OFF, AND PERCOLATION. 

In regard to precipitation, surface run-off, and underground 
percolation, Tularosa Basin can be divided into several zones, as 
follows: (1) The high mountains, w T hich have heavy precipitation 
(about 17.5 to 25 inches), heavy flood discharge, and a small peren- 
nial stream flow; (2) the low mountains and the lower parts of the 
high mountains, which have intermediate precipitation (about 12.5 
to 17.5 inches), heavy flood discharge, and little or no perennial 
stream flow; (3) the upper gravelly parts of the stream-built slopes, 
which have probably only a little more precipitation than the inte- 
rior desert plain (about 10 to 12.5 inches), little run-off, and heavy 
percolation ; (4) the areas of dense adobe soil, which have nearly the 
minimum precipitation, considerable run-off, a rather small amount 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 97 

of capillary absorption, and little or no percolation; (5) the interior 
gypseous plain, which has minimum precipitation, little run-off, 
considerable capillary absorption, and considerable percolation 
through sink holes; (6) the areas of gypsum sands and quartz sands, 
which have minimum precipitation, little or no run-off, and great 
capacity for absorption and percolation; (7) the lava beds (partic- 
ularly the younger bed), which have nearly minimum precipitation, 
little or no run-off, and probably heavy percolation; and (8) the 
alkali flats, which have minimum precipitation, no run-off, little 
absorption or percolation, and maximum evaporation. 

MOUNTAIN AREAS. 

The parts of the Sacramento Mountains and the Sierra Blanca 
lying west of the divide cover somewhat more than one-tenth of the 
total area of Tularosa Basin. They receive a heavier precipitation 
than other parts of the basin, and are the only areas that give rise to 
permanent streams. 

Within the mountains the Kinconada drainage area comprises 
about 85 square miles, the Tularosa about 165 square miles, the 
La Luz and Fresnal together about 75 square miles, and the small 
drainage areas between the Tularosa and La Luz and south of the 
Fresnal together about 200 square miles. The entire west side of the 
Sacramento Mountains (inclusive of all of the Rinconada drainage 
area, a part of which rises in the Sierra Blanca, and exclusive of 
the low mountainous area south of the main range) covers about 
525 square miles. It has a maximum altitude of over 9,000 feet above 
sea level, or 5,000 feet above the desert plain, and an average altitude 
of somewhat more than 7,000 feet above sea level, or 3,000 feet above 
the desert plain. Its average annual precipitation is probably not 
less than 18 inches, and the total water supply that it receives as 
rain or snow is estimated to average about one-half million acre-feet 
a year, or 700 second-feet. The stream discharge, exclusive of flood 
discharge, is less than 5 per cent of the precipitation, and most of 
this amount is delivered by springs. 

The Three Rivers drainage area, which includes the highest part 
of the Sierra Blanca, comprises about" 100 square miles and exhibits 
a greater diversity of physical conditions than the drainage areas of 
the Sacramento Mountains, containing as it does the lofty Sierra 
Blanca Peak and also much land that is nearly desert. The total 
quantity of water that falls in an average year on the Three Rivers 
and other areas of the Sierra. Blanca draining into Tularosa Basin no 
doubt exceeds 100,000 acre-feet. 

The total area of the other mountain regions draining into Tula- 
rosa Basin is nearly as great as that of the combined Sacramento and 

48731°— wsp 343—15 7 



98 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Sierra Blanca areas. Their precipitation is distinctly lighter than 
that of the high parts of these two ranges, but the total quantity of 
water that they receive as rain or snow in an average year must 
amount to several hundred thousand acre-feet. 

The flood discharge of the mountain regions is difficult to esti- 
mate, but appears to be great. On account of the brief duration of 
the floods, however, there is perhaps some tendency to overestimate 
the aggregate amount of flood water. According to the estimates 
of the State engineer of New Mexico, based on gage readings, the 
flood discharge of La Luz and Fresnal creeks from March 1 to 
August 31, 1912, was only an insignificant percentage of the pre- 
cipitation on the drainage area, but this region affords such a 
diversity of conditions that much more data would be required to 
form an adequate basis for generalization. The following table 
shows the distribution of floods in the period during which observa- 
tions were made : 

Estimated flood discharge of La Luz and Fresnal creeks from Mar. 1 to Aug. 

31, 1912} 

Acre-feet. 

Apr. 5 3.36 

July 10 6. 77 

14 5. 21 

16 — 1. 24 

18 92. 35 

28 4. 42 

Aug. 4 .66 

15 - 5. 60 

16 4. 50 

17 37. 20 

19 

21 19. 38 

24 47. 44 

30 9. 50 



238. 08 
ZONE OF GRAVELLY SEDIMENTS. 

The upper parts of the debris slopes adjacent to the mountains 
are sufficiently gravelly to allow ready downward percolation, 
although they are not so pervious as similar slopes where red clay 
and silt are less abundant. The streams and freshets discharged 
from the mountains generally cross the gravelly zone in definite 
high-level arroyos cut into the slopes, but in some places they spread 
over the general surface. In either case they lose much water that 
percolates down to the zone of saturation and replenishes the main 

1 Data furnishod by State engineer of New Mexico. Measurements were made below 
the junction of the two streams (Gage No. 1, in fig. 22). 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 99 

underground supply. The rain that falls on the upper parts of the 
slopes also contributes to the underground store. 

The large area of plains and bench lands east, north, and west of 
the lava beds contributes water to the valley fill. A part of the 
northern run- off which comes down on both sides of the younger 
lava bed in streamways formed since the lava was extruded and a 
part of that which enters the porous sediments overlying the rocks no 
doubt reach the main body of water in the valley fill. However, 
much of the northern water enters the rock formations, large gypsum 
sink holes in the Pennsylvanian rocks receiving practically the entire 
drainage of some arroyos. Moreover, some of the flood waters on 
the west side of the lava reach Salt Creek and flow into the large 
alkali flat to which this creek drains, without passing below the sur- 
face. 

ZONE OF DENSE ADOBE. 

The middle zone of the stream-built slopes is largely covered with 
dense abode that is too impervious to allow percolation. To a great 
extent this zone lies below the high-level arroyos and above the mid- 
slope arroyos, and consequently the flood waters spread over it more 
than over the parts of the slopes above or below it. This spreading 
of flood waters over the adobe soil is fortunate in so far as irrigation 
with flood waters is concerned, but it is of little consequence in mak- 
ing contributions to the underground supply. The rain that falls 
on this zone also largely runs off over the surface. It is so slowly 
absorbed by the action of capillarity that even after a heavy rainfall 
and several hours of flooding the ground at a depth of a few inches 
may be found dry. The amount that percolates to the ground- water 
level in the areas of dense adobe is probably negligible. 

THE GYPSEOUS PLAIN AND THE MID-SLOPE ARROYOS. 

The gypseous soil of the extensive interior plain absorbs water 
more freely than does the adobe. Aside from the mid-slope arroyos, 
which convey waters gathered almost exclusively from higher levels, 
the gypseous plain has little run-off, although it receives an average 
rainfall of about 10 inches and also considerable flood water from 
higher levels. The alkali present in this soil, however, seems to 
indicate that there is little general downward seepage to depths of 
more than a few feet. Apparently the water that reaches this 
plain is disposed of chiefly by (1) percolation through sink holes 
to the water table and (2) capillary absorption followed by 
evaporation. 

The floors of the arroyos are covered with adobe which renders 
them relatively impervious, but in the gypseous banks of the arroyos 



100 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

many sink holes have developed that receive large quantities of 
flood water, much of which probably reaches the water table. The 
northern mid-slope arroyos extern! to the sand areas, but the south- 
ern disappear some distance from the sand, their waters being lost 
either by spreading over the general surface of the plain or by run- 
ning into sink holes. 

AREAS OF GYPSUM SANDS AND QUARTZ SANDS. 

The gypsum sands, the quartz sands north of the gypsum sands, 
and the extensive sandy tracts in the southern part of the basin are 
so porous that they readily absorb such rainfall as they receive, and 
their pores are of sufficient size to allow the water to percolate to the 
floor on which they rest. The further percolation depends on the 
character of the underlying material, which below the gypsum sands 
and northern quartz sands is bedded gypsum or gypseous clay, and 
below the southern sands is loam or caliche. The percolating waters 
reaching the bottom of the sands are protected from evaporation 
and are in a favorable position to percolate farther downward unless 
the material is wholly impenetrable. Under such conditions of 
moisture even the caliche softens and no doubt allows some slow 
percolation. 

The northern arroyos extend to the gypsum or quartz sands where 
they are either blocked by the sand dunes and form small temporary 
lakes, as the arroyo in the center of T. 14 S., R. 8 E., and the one 
ending near the southern margin of T. 16 S., E. 8 E., or else perse- 
vere some distance into the sands, as the Three Rivers arroyo and 
the arroyo that passes north of the Cerrito Tularosa. In either case 
the sands absorb the flood waters that have not been received by 
the gravels nor by the sink holes and have not been dissipated in 
other ways. 

LAVA BEDS. 

The older lava bed sheds some water, as is proved by the gullies 
that have been formed in it, but the younger lava is so extensively 
broken and so nearly devoid of any soil cover that it has practically 
no run-off. Out of approximately 75,000 acre-feet a year, or 100 
second-feet, of rain that falls on the younger lava, a part is re- 
turned by evaporation, but a larger part, it is believed, percolates 
underground. Flood waters are also thrown against both sides of 
the younger lava bed and make some contribution to the underground 
supply. Malpais Spring and the adjacent wet lands are fed from 
this supply and give evidence of its importance. 






WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 101 

ALKALI FLATS. 

The alkali flats are the lowest areas to which the flood waters can 
flow. Since they are without drainage outlets and since the ground 
under them is saturated nearly or quite to the surface the flood 
waters that reach these flats can in general escape only by evapora- 
tion. They make no contribution to the underground supply. 

The flood waters from the east do not reach the alkali flats because 
they are blocked by the intervening broad belt of gypsum and 
quartz sands, and those in the southern part of the basin do not 
reach the flats because the surface does not slope northward. 
Waters from far north on the west side of the younger lava bed, how- 
ever, drain southward and to some extent reach the alkali flats, 
whereas the floods shed from the mountains west of the flats are 
carried quickly over the relatively short, steep slope and are in part 
discharged upon the large flat. 

SUMMARY. 

The water of the valley fill is derived chiefly by percolation through 
(1) the upper, porous zone of the debris slopes and the plains and 
bench lands east and north of the lava beds, (2) the sink holes in 
the interior gypseous plain and the gypseous banks of the mid- 
slope arroyos, (3) the gypsum sands and quartz sands, and (4) the 
lava beds. The quantity of water added to the underground store 
in the valley fill is no doubt great, aggregating probably more than 
100,000 and possibly several hundred thousand acre-feet a year, but 
a large part is added below the zone of soil suitable for agriculture 
and may therefore not be available for irrigation. 

OCCURRENCE OF WATER. 

The water stored in the valley fill occurs in (1) the pore spaces of 
the sand and gravel deposits, (2) the smaller pores of the clayey 
and gypseous materials that comprise the bulk of the valley fill, 
and (3) the more or less open solution channels in the gypseous 
material. 

The sand and gravel deposits are the most important sources of 
water. They are not as a rule continuous strata of uniform thick- 
ness that can be correlated over large areas, but are commonly irregu- 
lar, lenticular masses that are found at different depths and in dif- 
ferent amounts in adjacent localities. This irregular relation is 
shown to exist in the vicinity of El Paso by the sections of the 
numerous wells that were sunk within a few hundred feet of each 
other at the city waterworks (fig. 15, p. 68) and is less definitely 



102 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

indicated by the records of the wells throughout Tularosa Basin. 
Over most of the area between the Sacramento and San Andreas 
mountains there are several gravelly or sandy water-bearing beds 
within 200 or 300 feet of the surface, but in a few localities such 
beds are absent or very poorly developed. At greater depths the 
proportion of sand and gravel is apparently still smaller. Opposite 
the Organ Mountains and farther south the amount of sand is dis- 
tinctly greater, reaching an aggregate maximum thickness of about 
150 feet to the depth reached by some of the El Paso waterworks 
wells. There is some reason to expect that where the debris was 
supplied by the igneous and Cretaceous formations of the Sierra 
Blanca there is also more water-bearing sand and gravel. 

The sand and gravel deposits are apparently not well assorted, 
clayey and silty materials being in many places mixed with the 
coarser materials. In the vicinity of El Paso the water-bearing beds 
have less clay, but generally contain sand grains of various sizes. 
In many places there appears to be no sharp distinction between the 
clayey gravel that is more or less water-bearing and the gravelly 
clay that is only slightly pervious. Much of the clay, however, 
especially that at considerable depths, is too dense to yield any water. 
There is much water in the pores of the less compact portions of 
the clayey and gypseous materials which is in general yielded too 
slowly to be utilized by drilled wells but which is in part recovered 
through dug wells that do not tap any sand or gravel bed. This 
water forms a reserve supply that will be slowly surrendered to the 
water-bearing formations drawn upon by drilled wells. 

Some water is also found in solution channels in the gypseous 
material comparable to the solution channels commonly found in 
limestones. These channels, probably fed largely by sink holes, give 
some support to the popular belief in " veins " and " streams " of 
underground water. They are not generally hollow, but are at least 
partly filled with porous materials. 

WATER TABLE. 
SIGNIFICANCE. 

The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation; 
that is, the surface below which all the spaces not occupied by earth 
are filled with water. A well sunk into the zone of saturation is, like 
other void spaces, filled with water to the level of the water table. 
If, however, an impervious formation protrudes into the upper part 
of the zone of saturation, the well does not receive water until it has 
been sunk to the bottom of the impervious formation, when the water 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 103 

will enter the well and rise to a static level that may be regarded as 
the water table at that point. 

The water table is in few places a level surface, but it has much 
more gentle slopes and less pronounced irregularities than the land 
surface. A knowledge of its elevation and topography gives infor- 
mation in regard to the source, movement, and disposal of the under- 
ground water, and in areas with little development gives a basis for 
forecasting the depth to water. It also gives a basis for future esti- 
mates of the effects of heavy pumping. A knowledge of the position 
of the water table relative to the land surface is important in its 
bearing on the cost of drilling and pumping, the quantity of under- 
ground water returned to the atmosphere, and the accumulation of 
alkali in the soil. 

The data obtained in regard to the elevation of the water table 
and its depth below the surface are given in the list of wells on pages 
268-299. In most wells the bench mark to which measurements are re- 
ferred is indicated by three notches cut into the wood of the well 
platform or curb, but in a few wells it is the top of the iron casing. 
For most of the wells the altitude of the bench mark was instru- 
mentally determined. 

FORM. 

The form and elevation of the water table in the principal shallow- 
water area of Tularosa Basin is shown by 25-foot contours in Plate 
II (in pocket). In this area the water table forms an asymmetric 
trough whose axis is near the west side and descends toward the 
south. In the area shown in Plate II the water table is an even 
surface with few irregularities, but its slope ranges from about 50 
feet to the mile in some localities on the east side to less than 5 feet 
to the mile on parts of the large alkali flat. In the regions north, 
west, and east of the area mapped the water table stands higher above 
sea level, and from all three directions it slopes toward the principal 
shallow-water area. 

South of the area shown in Plate II (in pocket) the water table con- 
tinues to descend but apparently not at a uniform rate. At the old Pel- 
man wells, now owned by W. H. McNew, in the SW. J sec. 5, T. 19 S., 
R. 7 E., it is 3,922 feet above sea level; in the dug well at the McNew 
ranch, 2^ miles west of the old Pelman ranch, NW. J sec. 12, T. 19 S., 
R. 6 E., it is 3,918 feet; and at the south end of the southernmost 
alkali flat it is slightly less than 3,900 feet. In the wells at the Hitt 
ranch and at Newman station, both near the Texas State line and 
almost 50 miles south of the McNew wells and the alkali flats, it is 
somewhat more than 3,700 feet above sea level, and in the wells in 



104 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the vicinity of Fort Bliss it is nearly at the same level or only slightly 
above the bed of the Rio Grande at El Paso. The average descent 
from the south end of the alkali flats to the Texas line is about 4 feet 
to the mile, but a large part of this descent seems to occur between 
the alkali flats and Bennett's ranch, and between Coe's north ranch 
and Coe's home ranch. (See PL I, in pocket.) No doubt the water 
table also slopes toward the east. 

For some miles south of Dog Canyon the water table has only a 
gentle southward slope, but near Orograncle it seems to drop rap- 
idly. In the abandoned railroad well at Orogrande the water level 
is, according to the record of the railroad company, only 3,695 feet 
above sea level, or about 25 feet below the water level in the Newman 
wells. In the abandoned Benton well, 5 miles northeast of Oro- 
grande, the water level was found to be between 3,600 and 3,650 feet 
above sea level, which is the lowest water level found in Tularosa 
Basin, and considerably lower than the Rio Grande at El Paso. 

RELATION TO LAND SURFACE. 

Tularosa Basin contains one large shallow-water tract in the area 
of valley fill, which extends from a short distance north of the south 
end of the younger lava bed to a short distance south of the south- 
end of the alkali flats and gypsum sands (PI. II, in pocket). In 
addition to this large tract it contains a number of smaller shallow- 
water tracts, most of which lie east and north of the Phillips Hills 
or in the valley of Three Rivers, and are described in connection 
with the water in the Cretaceous rocks (pp. 138-157). 

The following table gives the estimated areas of land having 
specified depths to the water table in the large shallow-water tract : 

Areas (in square miles) having eertain speeified deptlis to the water table in 
the large shallow-water traet of Tularosa Basin, 



Depths to water table, in feet. 


Area, exclusive 
of lava bed, 
alkali flats, 
quartz sands, 
and gvpsum 
sands (PI. II, 
in pocket). 


Total area. 


Less than 2-"> 


Square miles. 
250 
310 
360 
560 
920 


Square miles. 
570 


25 to 50 


620 


50 to 100 - 


430 


Less than 50 




1,190 


Less than 100 


1,620 







The position of the areas with different depths to water is shown 
for the most part on the large map, Plate II (in pocket). Water 
will probably be found less than 50 feet from the surface on the west 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 105 

side of the lava bed over an area extending north beyond the Mound 
Springs and west to Gililland's ranch, and less than 100 feet on both 
sides of the lava bed to within a few miles of the lower crossing. 
Water will also be found less than 100 feet from the surface over a 
belt of land extending south of the area shown in Plate II to a line 
running with a general east- west direction through T. 20 S. 

Both the land surface and the water table slope from the mountain 
areas on the opposite sides of the basin toward the low central area 
occupied by the alkali flats, but the slope of the land surface is steeper 
than that of the water table, and consequently the two surfaces 
gradually approach each other. Near the mountains the depth to 
water is generally much more than 100 feet, but it decreases toward 
the low central area. Hence the areas having different depths to 
water, shown in Plate II, form roughly parallel or concentric belts 
around the low interior. 

On the alkali flats the water table nearly coincides with the land 
surface, the depth to water being everywhere small and generally 
not more than a few feet. On the large dune area, including both 
gypsum and quartz sands, the depth to water differs locally because 
of the irregularities of the surface. In some places in the dune area 
the water table is practically at the surface, over a large part of 
the area it is between 25 and 50 feet below the surface, and in a few 
places it is more than 50 feet below the surface. The water table is 
at practically the same level below the mid-slope arroyos as below 
the intervening areas, and consequently the depth to water is less, 
and the 25-foot limit extends up the arroyos for several miles, as is 
shown in Plate II. 

On account of the overfilling of the underground reservoir (p. 107) 
the water table is necessarily near the land surface over considerable 
areas, regardless of details of topography or structure within the 
basin. Several agencies have, however, been instrumental in bring- 
ing it to the surface in specific localities. The wind has planed the 
large tracts occupied by the alkali flats practically to the water table 
and has made possible the erosion of Salt Creek valley below the 
water table, so that this creek receives a seepage of ground water 
amounting to about one-half second-foot (PL VIII, C). The surface 
waters have in some places cut down the mid-slope arroyos so near to 
the water table that these arroyos contain springs and pools whose 
surfaces coincide with the ground-water level. At certain places the 
arroyos are flooded annually by the periodic rise of the ground-water 
level above the levels of the arroyo floors. The ground waters have 
formed sink holes in the gypseous soil, which in some places extend 
below the water table and contain pools of what is virtually ground 
water, such as the pool 2 miles southwest of Shoemaker's flowing well 
(PI. XVIII, B) and the pool 1J miles north of that well. 



106 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

South of the white sands the depth to water increases, although 
the land surface is nearly level. At Bennett's ranch it is about 130 
feet. Thence southward for about 20 miles on the nearly level plain 
it is generally between 120 and 150 feet. Farther south the land 
surface rises and the water table descends, with the result that at 
Coe's home ranch, at the Hitt ranch (on the Texas line), and at 
intervening points the depth to water exceeds 300 feet. 

Southward from Dog Canyon station for 15 miles or more the 
depth to water increases very gradually. At Oliver Lee's valley 
well (about sec. 2, T. 21 S., K. 9 E.) the depth is only 103 feet. 
South of Lee's well, however, the depth increases rapidly, although 
the surface rises only slightly. At the Benton well, situated about 
5 miles northeast of Orogrande, on the general level of the plain and 
considerably below the railroad at Orogrande, the depth to water is 
407 feet. From Fleck's home ranch and Orogrande westward to the 
vicinity of the Cox wells the depth to water probably decreases grad- 
ually. From Orogrande southwestward along the railroad to New- 
man station (on the Texas line) it probably also decreases gradually, 
ranging from nearly 400 feet on the plain south of Orogrande to 
somewhat less than 300 feet in the vicinity of Newman. South of 
Newman and the Hitt ranch the depth to water continues to de- 
crease until at Fort Bliss, on the upland overlooking the Rio Grande 
valley, it is less than 200 feet. 

FLUCTUATIONS. 

The water table is not a stationary surface, but rises and falls 
gradually as a result of variations in the rate at which the under- 
ground supply is withdrawn and replenished. In Tularosa Basin 
the principal controlling factors are no doubt rainfall and evapora- 
tion, but in regions where the ground water is extensively used the 
quantity withdrawn by man becomes an important factor. If enough 
data can be obtained before important irrigation developments are 
made to establish the relation of fluctuations of the water table to 
fluctuations in rainfall, these data will be valuable as a basis for 
estimating the effects of pumping if in the future ground water is 
withdrawn on an extensive scale. The data thus far obtained are 
too fragmentary and cover too brief a period to establish this rela- 
tion, but they give some information that is of value. The follow- 
ing table gives the results of monthly measurements, voluntarily 
made by Mr. A. K. Gore and Mr. Simeon Bowden, in two wells near 
Alamogordo. In addition to these observations a few successive 
measurements have been made in several other wells. 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 107 

Monthly fluctuations of water level in two wells near Alamogordo, N. Hex. 



Year and month. 



September. 

October 

November. 
December. . 



1911. 



January 

February. . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September.. 
December.. 



1912. 



January. 



1913. 



Well of A. K. Gore. 



Day of 
month. 



Depth to 

water level 

below 

bench 

mark. 



Feet. 
79.9 
79.5 
79.7 
79.0 



78.8 
78.8 
78.7 
78.8 
78.7 
78.6 
78.7 
78.9 
78.7 
78.9 



Well of Simeon Bow- 
den. 



Day of 
month. 



12 



Depth to 

water level 

below 

bench 

mark. 



Feet. 



23.7 
22.8 
22.9 
22.9 



22.9 
22.8 
22.9 
22.2 
22.5 
22.5 
23.5 
23.7 
a 19. 7 



a 18. 5 



a Well drilled deeper, giving higher artesian head. 

These measurements show only small fluctuations. During a pe- 
riod of one year the range in Gore's well was 1.3 feet and the range 
in Bowden's well 1.5 feet. From these and other measurements it 
appears that the water level generally declines in the summer and 
does not rise again until several months after the summer rains. 
The principal rise of ground water in the arroyos takes place in the 
spring before evaporation becomes intense. The springs in the val- 
ley of Three Rivers have the largest flow in May and June. 

In the vicinity of Alamogordo the water level is said to have risen 
considerably in the last decade owing to the irrigation water that 
has been brought there from La Luz, Fresnal, and Alamo creeks 
since the railroad was built. Such rise is indicated by the sharp 
deflection of the water-table contours at Alamogordo where the wa- 
ter is applied. 

That the water table had generally gone down during the dry 
series of years prior to 1911 and had not yet recovered itself in the fall 
of that year is indicated by the fact that in many of the wells meas- 
ured in the fall of 1911 the water stood several feet lower than the 
level at which it was reported to have stood when the wells were sunk. 

DISPOSAL OP WATER. 

Ground- water developments differ from mining developments in 
that they depend on a resource which does not become permanently 
exhausted, but is constantly replenished. If the underground sup- 
ply in this region were not replenished it could be seriously depleted 



108 GEOLOGY AND WATER. RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



in a comparatively few years by moderately extensive pumping. 
Irrigation developments should not be planned on a scale to deplete 
the supply, but rather on a scale to utilize the annual contributions 
to the supply, which if not used by man form a surplus that is dis- 
posed of by nature. In order to gain some notion of the quantity 
annually available for pumping from- wells, consideration should be 
given to both the annual increment from rainfall and subsequent 
run-off, and to the annual loss or surplus disposed of by nature. 
(See fig. 26.) Except as the storage changes with the fluctuations 
of the water table, the surplus disposed of is equal to the annual incre- 
ment, and an estimate of either gives an estimate of the available 
annual supply. 

Beneath the principal areas of intake the water table is elevated, 
beneath the principal areas of loss it is depressed. On account of 
these differences in level the ground water moves from the former 
to the latter. A map, such as Plate II (in pocket), which shows 
the topography of the water table, shows also the direction of move- 
ment of ground water, because the water always flows down the 
slope, or at right angles to the contours. The grade of the water 
table is the expression of a delicate adjustment between the gain and 
loss of water on the one hand and the resistance of the formations 
to the movement of water on the other. 

Water in the valley fill of Tularosa Basin is lost mainly by return 
to the atmosphere, but also, at least in the southern part, by under- 
ground seepage to other regions. Return to the atmosphere occurs 
where the zone of saturation touches the land surface and its water 
flows out in springs, and also where this zone is so near the surface 
that its water rises by capillarity to the surface (fig. 26). The zone 
of saturation is held up to the level where it overflows through 
springs and capillary pores by the new supplies that are constantly 
being added to the underground reservoir and borne toward the 
areas of loss. If these new supplies were stopped the loss of water 
would gradually draw down the water table to a level from which 
the springs would no longer flow and the capillary water would no 
longer rise within reach of the atmosphere. 

The springs in the valley fill are of two kinds, both of which 
are found where the water table is near the surface. One kind is 
caused by abrupt irregularities in the land surface whereby the zone 
of saturation is exposed; the other kind occurs where there are no 
such irregularities and where the water is apparently brought to 
the surface by artesian pressure. Examples of the first kind are 
the springs along Salt Creek, in the mid-slope arroyos, and on the 
alkali flats near their margins. Malpais Spring also belongs in a 
sense to this class. Examples of the second kind are the Mound 
Springs and some of the salt springs on the east side of the white 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 109 

sands. (See pp. 52, 123.) The salt spring near the limestone mound 
in the SW. £ sec. 28, T. 17 S., R. 8 E., probably results in part from 
the structure of the rock. The aggregate flow of the springs in the 
valley fill is not great; including Malpais Spring it probably does 
not average 10 second- feet. 

Observation made in the lower parts of Tularosa Basin indicate 
that the height to which water is lifted above the water table by 
capillarity differs with the character of the fill, but is in many places 
about 8 feet. The alkali flats were examined in a number of widely 
separated localities, in almost all of which the water table was found 
to be not more than a few feet below the surface, and in one locality 
it was found only 6 inches below the surface. That ground water 
was returning to the atmosphere in these localities was indicated 
by the wet condition of the soil from the surface down to the water 
level. Wet areas, with the water table only a few feet below the 
surface, were also found in the' vicinity of Malpais Spring, in the 
valley of Salt Creek, in the lower parts of the mid-slope arroyos, 
and in certain depressions in the dune areas. Altogether, ground 
water is probably evaporating over 150 to 200 square miles. 

C. H. Lee 1 found that in Owens Valley, Cal., where the condi- 
tions are more or less comparable to those in Tularosa Basin, although 
the rainfall is probably less and the character of the soil and 
vegetation is somewhat different, the annual evaporation was about 
35 inches where the average depth to the water table was 2.5 feet, 
about 27.9 inches where it was 3.5 feet, and about 14.1 inches where 
it was 5.5 feet. Although close comparisons are not possible it ap- 
pears probable that the average rate of evaporation on the wet 
lands of Tularosa Basin is between 1 and 2 feet a year. If the area 
of evaporation is 175 square miles and the average rate of evapo- 
ration is 1 foot a year, ground water is being returned to the atmos- 
phere from this area at the rate of about 150 second-feet, or 110,000 
acre-feet a year. A part of the ground water disposed of by evapo- 
ration is received in the dune areas and other low tracts and could 
probably not be recovered for the irrigation of the good soil at 
higher levels. 

South of the alkali flats the water table slopes southeastward, and 
the water no doubt moves slowly in that direction. The remarkably 
low water levels east of the Jarilla Mountains seem to indicate that 
the ground water is drained away rather than replenished by the 
broken Carboniferous rocks that outcrop in the low, barren ridges in 
that region. It has been supposed that an underground barrier ex- 
tends from the Jarilla to the Organ Mountains, separating the min- 
eralized waters of Tularosa Basin from the relatively soft waters of 

1 Lee, C. II., An intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley, 
California : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294, p. 131, 1912. 



110 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Hueco Basin, but there is no topographic or geologic evidence of 
such a barrier, and it does not seem to be required by the differences 
in the quality of the water, nor indeed would it account for the 
differences in quality as shown by the analyses given in this paper. 
(See pp. 124—133.) The water under the plain extending between the 
alkali flats and El Paso is no doubt supplied chiefly from the San 
Andreas, Organ, and Franklin ranges, and moves in general away 
from these mountains. Moreover, the low water levels in the Jarilla 
Mountain region tend to prevent the spread of the highly mineralized 
waters of that region. There is no reason for supposing that in the 
absence of a rock barrier a current would move from the flats to El 
Paso or that any of the water in Tularosa Basin would ever reach 
Fort Bliss. The comparatively small amount of northern miner- 
alized water that probably reaches the middle and eastern parts of 
the Hueco Basin is no doubt widely disseminated and greatly diluted 
by the purer waters of more local sources. A barrier separating the 
two kinds of water would have to pass north of Bennett's and Lee's 
wells and yet remain some distance west and south of the Jarilla 
Mountains. To postulate such a barrier would seem to involve un- 
tenable assumptions. 

YIELD OF WELLS. 

In the following paragraphs are given, in geographic order from 
north to south, some of the principal data on the yield of wells 
which end in the valley fill and which were in existence in 1911-12. 
Data in regard to the yield of wells ending in the rock formations are 
given on pages 138-175, and additional data in regard to all classes of 
wells will be found in the tables, pages 268-299. 

WELLS NORTH OF JARILLA MOUNTAINS. 

Otis wells. — At the dwelling on the farm of Isaac Otis, SW. J 
sec. 8, T. 14 S., R. 9 E., there is a well consisting of a dug hole 3£ 
feet in diameter and 24 feet deep and a drilled hole 6 inches in diam- 
eter extending from the bottom of the dug hole to a depth 58 feet 
below the surface. The dug hole is uncased; the drilled part has 
heavy iron casing, the lower 10 feet of which is perforated with round 
holes three-eighths of an inch in diameter. The principal supply is 
obtained from sand and gravel in the lowest 10 feet. The original 
water level was about 20 feet below the surface, but when the basal 
sand bed was struck the water rose within 8 feet of the surface. In a 
test covering 1 \ hours the well was pumped at the rate of 260 gallons 
a minute and the water level was thereby drawn down from 8.0 
feet below the bench mark, its normal level, to 16.5 feet below the 
same datum, or a distance of 8.5 feet. The yield was therefore a little 
over 30 gallons a minute for each foot of drawdown. In an earlier 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. Ill 

test, 15 hours long, the pump is reported to have thrown 270 gallons 
a minute, but the drawdown was somewhat greater. 

Another well, on the farm of Mr. Otis, situated in the NE. J sec. 
17, T. 14 S., R. 8 E., is 8 inches in diameter and 68 feet deep and 
also ends in a sandy bed near the bottom. It is said to be cased to 
a depth of about 58 feet in a manner similar to that of the well at 
the house. It is pumped with a deep-well pump, the cylinder of 
which is 40 feet below the surface and has 10 feet of suction pipe. 
In a test covering nearly an hour the pump first delivered 70 gallons 
and the water was drawn down from its normal level, 17 feet below 
the top of the casing, to 28.1 feet below, and later the rate of pump- 
ing was increased to 100 gallons a minute and the water level was 
consequently lowered to 31.5 feet below top of casing. The yield 
of this well is therefore between 6 and 7 gallons a minute for each 
foot of drawdown. A large quantity of red clay and grit was 
pumped up with the water. 

Hill wells.— On the Hill farm, NW. J sec. 13, T. 14 S., R. 8 E., 
there is a system of 3 dug wells about 4 feet in diameter and nearly 
40 feet deep, connected by about 50 feet of tunnels 3 feet wide and 
6 feet high. The entire system is uncased and receives water from 
small crevices and gravelly seams about 28 feet below the surface. 
It is pumped with a vertical centrifugal pump which has a capacity 
of over 100 gallons a minute and quickly reduces the accumulated 
supply when operated. Before the third well was connected the 
rate of infiltration was only about 20 gallons a minute, but with the 
present system the yield is estimated by one of the owners to be 
about 75 gallons a minute. A drilled well 158 feet deep failed to 
find water but ended in a white plastic material designated "lava 
ash " by the driller. 

Votaw well.— On the farm of M. W. Votaw, NE. J sec. 14, T. 14 S., 
R. 9 E., there is a well consisting of a dug hole 3 J feet in diameter 
and 96 feet deep, and a 9-inch drilled hole extending from the bottom 
of the dug part to a level 116 feet below the surface. The dug part 
is uncased ; the drilled part was first finished with perforated casing 
but later with a rather fine brass screen. The water level is 94.8 
feet below the bench mark, or 92 feet below the surface, and the 
well ends in a sandy deposit that furnishes most of the supply. A 
deep-well pump is operated at 70 gallons a minute, and, according to 
the owner, has been operated at this rate for 24 hours continuously. 
The drawdown was not measured but can not be more than about 
20 feet ; according to observations of the owner it is only 4J feet. 

Purday well. — On the farm of H. W. Purday, NE. J sec. 28, T. 
14 S., R. 9 E., there is a dug well 35 feet deep with a water level 31.2 
feet below the bench mark, or 29 feet below the surface. This well 



112 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



has been pumped with a deep-well pump at the rate of about 10 
gallons a minute for many hours without emptying the well. 

Lars en- irells. — On the farm of F. C. Larsen, NW. J sec. 4, T. 16 S., 
R. 9 E., there are two wells, both 100 feet deep, one lined with 6-inch 
and the other with 7-inch casing. Both are pumped with deep-well 
pumps, one of which is propelled by a windmill and the other by a 
gasoline engine. They pass through three recognized water beds 
about 55, 85, and 95 feet, respectively, below the surface, but the 
normal water level w T hen measured in the fall of 1911 was about 63 
feet below the surface. The owner reports that he pumps a little 
over 20 gallons a minute with the windmill and from 60 to 75 gal- 
lons a minute with the gasoline engine. 

Morgan icell. — On the farm of C. W. Morgan, NW. J sec. 23, T. 
16 S., R. 9 E., there is a drilled w T ell 160 feet deep, cased with sheet 
metal that is perforated below the water level. This well is 9 inches 
in diameter to the depth of 80 feet and 5 inches from that depth 
to the bottom. It is pumped with a deep-well pump, the cylinder 
of which is 74 feet below the surface, or about 20 feet below the 
water level, and has no suction pipe. The pump is operated at 40 
gallons a minute without affecting the supply. The drawdown could 
not be measured but is apparently less than 20 feet. 

Carl ivells. — At the ice plant of George Carl, a short distance 
southwest of the depot at Alamogordo, three 10-inch wells with 
heavy iron casings are connected and pumped simultaneously by 
means of a horizontal centrifugal pump 18 feet below the surface. 
The three wells are arranged in a north-south line. The middle and 
north wells are 186 feet deep and are 18 feet apart; the south w T ell 
is only 80 feet deep and is 20 feet from the middle well. The 80- foot 
well ends in a gravelly bed about 5 feet thick; and the 186-foot wells 
end in a gravelly bed 5 to 7 feet thick (fig. 11, p. 64). The middle 
well is finished with a 20-foot strainer having large oblong openings, 
this type of strainer being in use to some extent in the Rio Grande 
valley ; 1 the other two wells have perforated casings. The combined 
capacity of the 3 wells is 375 gallons a minute when the water level 
is drawn down about 19 feet, or about 20 gallons per foot of draw- 
down. Most of the water is said to be furnished by the 186-foot 
well with coarse strainer and comparatively little by the 80-foot well. 

Another w^ell at the ice plant is 186 feet deep and is pumped inde- 
pendently by a vertical centrifugal pump. Its yield w T as not meas- 
ured, but is estimated by the owner to be about two-fifths of the 
combined yield of the other three wells. 

Wertane well. — On the farm of Mrs. Wertane, NE. J sec. 35, T. 
16 S., R. 9 E., there is a drilled well similar in depth and construc- 



1 Slichter, C. S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande valley: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 141, PI. II B, 1905. 



WATER IN" VALLEY FILL. 113 

tion to the deep wells of George Carl, by whom it was sunk. It is 
pumped by means of a deep -well pump so attached that the draw- 
down could not be measured, but the yield is apparently similar to 
that of Mr. Carl's wells. 

Bowden well. — On the farm of Simeon Bowden, NW. J sec. 3, T. 
17 S., E. 9 E., there is a well which in 1911 consisted of a dug hole 
42J feet deep and a T-inch hole extending from the bottom of the 
dug part to a total depth of about 70 feet. The 7-inch hole was lined 
with heavy iron casing that extended to the depth of 66^ feet and was 
perforated in the lower 5 feet. The water level was 23.7 feet below 
the bench mark. The water was reported to enter chiefly from a 
6-foot bed of sand and gravel near the bottom, but also in the dug 
part below the water level. The well was pumped with a vertical 
centrifugal pump that was 35 feet below the surface, and had a 21- 
foot suction pipe extending to a depth of 35 feet below the surface. 
When the pump was operated it delivered about 100 gallons a 
minute until the water stored in the dug part was exhausted ; the yield 
then diminished rapidly and was soon inadequate to keep the pump 
primed. The permanent capacity with a drawdown of 35 feet was 
probably less than 40 gallons a minute. In 1912 the well was sunk to 
the so-called third stratum, which is an 8-foot bed of fine gravel be- 
tween the depths of 130 and 140 feet. The water from this bed rose 
to 19.7 feet below the bench mark, and is reported by the owner to 
yield about 60 gallons a minute with a drawdown of 14 feet, or about 
4 gallons for each foot of drawdown. 

Aple well. — On the farm of Beujamin Aple, S. -J sec. 35, T. 16 S., 
E. 9 E., there is a drilled well that has been pumped with a deep- 
well pump at a reported rate of about 60 gallons a minute. This 
report was not, however, verified. 

Loomas well. — On the farm of Mr. Loomas, SW. \ sec. 34, T. 16 
S., E. 9 E., a well 67 feet deep is reported to be pumped at the rate 
of about 30 gallons a minute. 

Pierce well. — A well drilled in 1912 on the farm of E. H. Pierce, 
about 2 miles east of Simeon Bowden's plant, is said to tap the third 
water bed and to furnish about 60 gallons a minute. 

Patty well.— On the farm of H. F.. Patty, NE. J sec. 15, T. 17 S., 
E. 9 E., there is a well consisting of a dug hole 35 feet deep, walled 
with lumber, . and a 7-inch hole with heavy iron casing extending 
from the bottom of the dug hole to a total depth of 59 feet. The 
water-bearing beds are reported to consist mainly of a 6-foot layer 
of sand near the bottom of the dug part and a 9-foot layer of sand 
and gravel at the bottom of the drilled part. The lower 17 feet of 
casing are perforated with holes seven- sixteenths of an inch in diame- 
ter. The water is lifted with a vertical centrifugal pump which is 

48731°— wsp 343—15 8 



114 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

near the bottom of the dug part and has a suction pipe 14 feet long 
extending into the drilled part. The normal water level is 31.2 feet 
below the bench mark, and the bottom of the suction pipe is about 18 
feet below the water level. The owner reported a yield of 185 
gallons a minute during a run of several hours, with a drawdown of 
about 10 feet. On the day the well was tested, however, the yield 
was irregular, averaging only a little over 100 gallons a minute, 
and was eventually interrupted apparently by clay caving and clog- 
ging the intake. 

Camp well. — On the farm of Mrs. S. D. Camp, at Dog Canyon sta- 
tion, there is a well consisting of a dug hole 8 feet square and 50 
feet deep, and a drilled hole 6 inches in diameter extending from 
the bottom of the dug hole to a level 160 feet below the surface. 
The dug hole is walled with lumber below the water level, which 
is here 38 feet below the surface ; the drilled hole is cased with No. 
18 galvanized sheet iron, perforated throughout with slits one-eighth 
inch wide and 18 inches long. Water was found in three sandy beds 
lying, respectively, between depths of about 38 and 58 feet, between 
depths of 76 and 84 feet, and below the depth of 158 feet. Mr, 
Camp, who drilled the well and followed the excellent plan of test- 
ing each bed before drilling to the next, furnished the following 
data: The tests were made with a vertical centrifugal pump set at 
the bottom of the dug hole, but a deep-well pump was later installed 
in its stead. When the well was 58 feet deep it was pumped for 
several hours at 70 gallons a minute and the water level was drawn 
down 12 feet, the yield therefore being about 6 gallons a minute for 
every foot of drawdown. When the well had been sunk through the 
second water bed it was pumped at 100 gallons a minute. After it 
had been sunk to 160 feet and the perforated casing had been in- 
serted it was pumped by means of the centrifugal pump with suc- 
tion pipe extending to 70 feet below the surface, or 32 feet below the 
water level, and yielded 144 gallons a minute with a drawdown of 
12 feet, or about 12 gallons for every foot of drawdown. 

/Summary. — The data given in the preceding paragraphs show that 
the wells which have been tested yield from small to medium amounts 
of water and that there are great differences in the capacities of dif- 
ferent wells in the same locality. For example, the first Otis well 
has a larger specific capacity than any of the wells investigated ; that 
is, it yields a larger quantity of water for each foot that the water 
level is drawn down, yet in the same locality wells have been drilled 
that yield very little. In connection with these data it should be 
stated, on the one hand, that they represent the most successful wells 
rather than the average wells, and, on the other hand, that they rep- 
resent various methods of drilling and finishing, some of which are 
ill adapted to the existing conditions, and that better average yields 



WATER IN" VALLEY FILL. 115 

could have been obtained in the wells described if the best methods 
had been uniformly used. 

WELLS SOUTH OF JARILLA MOUNTAINS. 

Since the water-bearing beds in the valley fill of the southern part of 
Tularosa Basin and the adjacent region to the south differ from those 
in the valley fill of the rest of the basin they should be considered 
separately. On account of the great depth to the water table irriga- 
tion with ground water is not feasible in this region, but good tests 
have been made by the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad Co., the 
Southern Pacific Co., the United States War Department, and 
especially by the city of El Paso. 

Railroad wells at Newman. — The two railroad wells at Newman sta- 
tion are 320 feet deep and are in sand below the water level, which is 
at a depth of 272 feet. (See fig. 14.) They are finished with 6-inch 
heavy iron casings, at the bottom of which are 5 \ -inch Cook strainers 
12 feet long. The tested capacity of each of these wells with the 
pump cylinder at the bottom of the wells is reported to be 75,000 
gallons in 24 hours, or about 50 gallons a minute. 

El Paso <& Southwestern Railroad wells at Fort Bliss. — Two wells 
were drilled by the El Paso & Southwestern Eailroad Co. at Fort 
Bliss, both of which are 8 inches in diameter and are reported to be 
in sand and gravel below the water level. The south well is said to be 
410 feet deep, to have a normal water level 190 feet below the sur- 
face, and to have been tested, with the pump cylinder 400 feet below 
the surface, at the rate of 30,000 gallons in 24 hours, or 20 gallons a 
minute. The north well is reported to be 249 feet deep, to have a 
water level 169 feet below the surface, and to have been tested with 
the pump cylinder 245 feet below the surface at the rate of 80,000 
gallons in 24 hours, or somewhat more than 50 gallons a minute. 

Army post wells at Fort Bliss. — Two wells supplying the Army 
post at Fort Bliss are 8 inches in diameter and respectively 313 and 
319 feet deep. When they were investigated by C. S. Slichter 1 in 
1904 they furnished from 52,000 to 86,000 gallons a day. 

Southern Pacific CoSs wells at Fort Bliss. — At the pumping station 
of the Southern Pacific Co. Slichter reports four 8-inch wells, 270 feet 
deep and finished with No. 6 Cook strainers 7 inches in diameter and 
20 feet long. He reports the maximum combined yield of these wells 
to be only 150,000 gallons in 24 hours, or about 100 gallons a minute. 2 

El Paso waterworks wells. — At the pumping plant of the El Paso 
waterworks, immediately northeast of Fort Bliss, 28 wells were 

1 Slichter, C. S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley : U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper -141, pp. 17-18, 1905. 

2 Idem, p. 17. 



116 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

drilled prior to December, 1912, and others were at that time being 
put down. The relative locations of these wells and their distances 
from each other are shown in figure 27. 

Twenty-three of the 28 wells were in use in December, 1912, of 
which 9 (Nos. 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15) are between 500 and 
600 feet deep and 14 (No. 7 and Nos. 16 to 28, inclusive) are GOO feet 
deep. The other 5 wells (Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, and 11) had been aban- 
doned. Well No. 5 was drilled to the depth of 2,285 feet, its section 
to a depth of 1,560 feet being given in figure 13 (p. 66). The wells 
pass through numerous irregular beds of rather clean but fine sand 







o 
28 


V 




o 
27 


V 

V 




O 
26 


1/ 

/ 




O 
25 

O o 

23 24 

o ° 
18 2' 

o o 

17 19 

o o 
16 22 

°I5 °ZO 


°5 

( Deep well, not used ) 


O Shaft 

°9 


°7 

^o „ ° 10 
Reservoir () '2 ' ( Not used) 
v_>U Reservoir 

U o 

PumphousejJ Q q Numbers indicate 


4 


13 
°3 


o.. designation of wells 
14 ° 

°6 
( Not used) 



SOO 



500 



1,000 



1,500 Feet 



Fir: run 27. — Map showing pumping plant and wells of El Taso waterworks. 

interstratified with layers of clay, as is shown in figure 32 (p. 146). 
They are cased with 8-inch standard iron pipe that is perforated 
where it passes through water-bearing beds with slits about 10 inches 
Jong and one-half inch wide. The water is lifted out of the wells 
by means of compressed air (fig. 28), the air pipe in the 600-foot 
wells extending about 440 feet below the surface, or about 250 feet 
below the water level. 

The 28 wells in use supply the consumption of El Paso, which 
averages about 4,000,000 gallons a day but reaches a maximum of 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 



117 



about 5,250,000 gallons a day. The maximum capacity of these wells 
with the appliances in use is estimated at 6,000,000 gallons a day, 
which would .be an average yield per well of about 260,000 gallons a 
day, or 175 gallons a minute. The 9 old wells, when tested, yielded 
about 1,000,000 gallons in 12 hours with a lowering of the water level 
to nearly 250 feet below the surface. This is an average yield per well 
of about 155 gallons a minute, or less 
than 3 gallons a minute for each 
foot of drawdown. 

It appears that in 1905, when the 



>j4a 



\& 



7777777, 



Water level 



I 
i 
i 

i 

i 
i 

i 



■* 



first wells were sunk, the water 
level was about 177 feet below the 
surface, but that it now stands about 
193 feet below the surface in the 
new wells before they are pumped. 
When all the wells are in use the 
water in the shaft (fig. 27) stands 
about 210 feet below the surface, and 
when all except No. 9 are in use 
it stands 206 feet below. When 
pumping stopped in all wells for 19 
hours the water in the shaft rose to 
a level 197 feet below the surface. 
Much of the depression of the water 
level, in the vicinity of the wells is 
temporary; that is, it is the lower- 
ing which is necessary to make the 
water flow toward the wells. In 
order to ascertain the permanent 
effect of the withdrawal of water on 
the water table, and hence on the 
available supply, it would be neces- 
sary to make observations of depth 
to water in several wells at differ- 
ent distances from the pumping 
plant at regular intervals (prefer- 
ably once every month) during a 
period of at least several years. 

In 1905, when the present pumping plant on the upland was in- 
stalled, the quantity of water withdrawn amounted to about 1,500,000 
gallons a day ; in 1912 it amounted to about 4,000,000 gallons, or 
12.3 acre-feet a day, or to about 4,500 acre-feet a year. In other 
terms, it amounted to about 2£ second-feet in 1905 and to somewhat 
over 6 second-feet in 1912. If the consumption has increased at a 
uniform rate the total quantity withdrawn in the 7 years from 1905 



Compressed 
air 



.*-> 



f srs7?//' 
I 

I 

I 

I 

I 
vj 
C> 
O 
N 

I 

I 



*.~07~* 



Figure 28. — Diagram of typical El 
Paso waterworks well, showing air 
lift. The water level indicated is the 
approximate level when the well is 
not in use. 



118 GEOLOGY AND WATER. RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

(o L912 amounts to approximately 22,000 acre-feet, which is equiv- 
alent to B .depth of about 39 feet of water over 1 square mile, or 1 
foot of water over a township. 

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING WELLS. 
DRILLING, BORING, AND DIGGING. * 

The valley fill is easily penetrated, and, except near the moun- 
tains where bowlders are encountered, it presents few difficulties in 
sinking wells. 

Most of the domestic wells are dug a short distance below the water 
table and are about 3^ feet in diameter. Some shallow wells have 
also been bored with augers propelled by hand. Where the water 
Level is far below the surface, however, or where sinking to con- 
siderable distances below 7 the water level has been necessary in order 
to obtain larger supplies or water that is less mineralized, machines 
propelled by horsepower, steam, or gasoline have been used. 

The machine most commonly used for sinking these deeper wells 
is the portable standard rig with percussion drill attached to a cable, 
the drill being withdrawn at intervals and the drillings removed by 
means of a bailer or sand bucket. A machine of this type is among 
the most reliable for exploration work, especially w T here deep drilling 
is involved, and it is also well adapted for drilling through deposits 
containing bowlders or hard layers. By its use water-bearing beds 
are generally detected, even though their yield is not great. 

A machine of another type also used is the rotary hydraulic rig, 
in which a stream of water is forced dowmvard through hollow iron 
drill-rods, the material being loosened by the combined action of the 
rotating drill and the constant jet of water and removed from the 
well by the current of water that is forced up outside of the drill rod. 
This machine is adapted for rapid work in unconsolidated sediments 
that are Tree of bowlders and hard layers. It is successfully used 
in beds of caving sand because muddy water can be injected which 
shuts out the sand by puddling and because the water in the well 
exerts an outward pressure. It is likely to give bad results if used 
by careless or inexperienced drillers, because weak water-bearing 
beds are not easily recognized and are liable to be shut out by the 
clay wall that is formed, with the result that these sources of water 
may never be developed. Stronger water-bearing beds are recog- 
nized by the character of the drillings and by the fact that the 
water pumped into the well tends to escape. 

A rather inexpensive machine auger, generally propelled by one 
or more horses that walk around the machine, has been used to a 

1 Bee also Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: U, s. Geol. Surrey Water-Supply 
Paper 257, 1911. 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 



119 



small extent in this region. It is extensively used in the glacial 
drift of Minnesota and Iowa, but is rarely found in the West. It 
can be employed for making holes of various sizes, but is often 
used for rather large holes — 18 inches and more in diameter. It is 
well adapted for rapid work in making comparatively shallow wells 
in unconsolidated deposits that do not contain bowlders, but its 
speed and efficiency diminish rapidly with increase in depth, and it 
is not very successful in penetrating hard layers. When sand that 
caves readily is encountered, the casing must be driven in advance 
and the hole cleaned with a sand pump. With the auger, as with the 
percussion drill, weak water-bearing beds can easily be detected. 
In California augers propelled by hand or by gasoline engines are 
in use for boring holes generally 7 to 12 inches in diameter. They 
are advantageously used to depths 
of 150 feet and have gone to depths 
of about 300 feet. They are not 
adapted for boring through hard 
formations or through deposits con- 
taining rocks more than about 3 
inches in diameter, but they could be 
successfully used in much of the 
valley fill of this region. 

Where the materials are soft and 
largely water bearing, holes are 
sometimes sunk by means of sand 
pumps or bailers only, but this 
method is not practicable in most 
localities. The mud-scow method, 



Depth in 
feet 

On 



Surface 



10- 



15 



Water 



> Dry zone 



Zone of 
. capillary 
moisture 



Zone of 

' saturation 



Figure 29. — Section of dug well show- 
ing zone of caving due to moist 
gypsum. 

\ 

which is extensively used in California, could be successfully used in 
this region, but requires a rather expensive outfit. 1 



CASING. 



Dug wells are frequently left uncased, except below the water 
level, where they are usually walled with lumber. Some wells 
are also cased above that level as far as the earth is moist, or at other 
horizons where there is material that caves readily. Figure 29 shows 
a shallow well in which the zone of capillary moisture extends up 
through the adobe and a short distance into the overlying gypsum. 
Since the moist gypsum caves more freely than the moist adobe or 
the dry gypsum, there is an horizon of caving material between the 



1 Slichter, C. S., Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground water : 
U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 140, pp. 98-103, 1905 ; also, Observations on the 
ground waters of Rio Grande valley : Water-Supply Paper 141, 1905. 



120 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

surface and the water level. In some wells the wooden casing is 
blackened, perhaps by the reduction of sulphates in the water, and 
the water at the same time acquires a disagreeable taste. If these 
wells are used for domestic supplies, casings of stone, brick, or tile 
are preferable to wooden casings below the water level. 

Bored and drilled wells are generally cased with standard iron 
pipe, standard screw casing, or sheet iron or steel ranging in thick- 
ness from about No. 12 gage to a very thin plate. Some bored and 
drilled wells are left uncased, but these are liable to deteriorate 
rapidly because of caving and consequent filling of the wells with 
sediments. The heavy iron casings are the least liable to accidents 
and the most reliable where beds of mineralized water are to be shut 
out. Generally, however, a moderately heavy sheet casing, which 
costs less, can be inserted and will give satisfactory service. The 
double stovepipe casing, which is extensively used in California, is 
less expensive than the standard pipe or screw casing and is more 
convenient where the casing follows the drill. It does not buckle as 
readily as the single sheet-iron casing and is more nearly water- 
tight. 1 

When the hydraulic method is used the casing is generally not in- 
serted until the drilling is completed. When an auger or percussion 
drill is used the casing is often allowed to follow the auger or drill 
in order to prevent caving, an expansion bit being used in some rigs. 
When the hole is made with a sand pump, bailer, or mud scow it is 
necessary to sink the casing as fast as the hole is excavated. 

FINISHING. 

Although it is easy to drill or bore into the valley fill, it requires 
skill to finish wells in this material in such a manner as to develop 
the largest possible yields. Much of the failure in the past appears 
to have been due to improper methods of finishing. The water- 
bearing material is poorly assorted and consists largely of gravel 
with a sandy or clayey matrix which yields water slowly. Every 
effort must be made to remove this matrix in order to develop around 
the well a bed of clean porous gravel that will transmit water freely. 
If the clayey material is not removed, slow seepage will take place 
over only the small intake area offered by the walls of the well, but 
if it is cleaned out for some distance in all directions from the well, 
this seepage will take place over the much larger intake area offered 
by the resulting gravel bed surrounding the well, and the flow into 
the well will be correspondingly increased. The transporting power 

1 Slichtor, C. S., Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground water: 
1". S. Qeol. Survey Water-Supply Taper 140, 1905; also, Observations on the ground 
waters of Rio Grande valley : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 141, 1905. 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 121 

of a current of water increases rapidly with increased velocity. 
Hence, when the yield of a well has been somewhat increased by the 
cleaning process, the current toward the intake of the well becomes 
swifter, and consequently carries out more fine sediments. The clean- 
ing can be done first with a bailer or sand pump and later by pump- 
ing as hard as possible. If the well fills with fine sediments, these 
should be removed with the bailer or sand pump, and pumping 
should be resumed until the water becomes clear and no more sedi- 
ments can be brought out. The air lift is best adapted for cleaning 
wells, but the centrifugal pump will also give good results. 

Where much material is removed, there is some danger that the 
clay from higher levels will slump and thereby shut out the water. 
The formation of a void and consequent slumping can in large 
measure be prevented by driving the casing into the upper part 
only of the water-bearing deposit and then introducing gravel into 
the bottom of the well as rapidly as room is made for it by the 
removal of fine sediments. After the cleaning is finished, it may be 
advisable to drive the casing into the gravel bed and to perforate 
it near the bottom. Where the sediments are all fine, a porous bed, 
resulting in an increased yield, can also often be produced around 
the intake of the well by introducing gravel through the inside of 
the casing. In exceptional localities, where the water-bearing bed is 
near the surface and where the entire section consists of unconsoli- 
dated sand, the cleaning can be continued until the sand caves from the 
top down, and gravel can then be introduced through the resulting 
cavities on the outside of the casing. This method has been used in 
the Rio Grande valley with excellent results, but will find little ap- 
plication in Tularosa Basin. It may, however, be possible to devise 
practicable methods of introducing gravel on the outside. The hole 
could, for instance, be drilled large enough for the insertion of a 
12-inch heavy iron casing, ending in the upper part of the water- 
bearing bed. A 6-inch casing, perforated near the bottom with holes 
one- fourth to one-half inch in width or diameter, could be inserted 
inside the 12-inch casing and driven to the bottom of the water- 
bearing bed. The sand and clay could then be pumped up through 
the 6-inch casing and fine gravel could be poured down between the 
two casings. After the gravel screen had been satisfactorily de- 
veloped, the 12-inch casing could be withdrawn and used in drilling 
other wells of the same kind. (See fig. 30.) 

If a well ending in a gravelly bed of the valley fill in Tularosa 
Basin is thoroughly cleaned, it will not as a rule require a fine 
strainer. A very coarse strainer was used with good success in one 
of Mr. Carl's wells, and most of the other wells with relatively large 
yields have perforated casings. The perforations can be made 



122 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

after the easing is inserted 1 or before it is put into the well; if 
before, care must be taken lest the perforations become clogged with 
adobe and do not admit the water. Where gravel is introduced the 
water can be admitted at the open end of the casing without per- 
forations, or the casing can be sunk through the gravel screen and 
the water admitted through perforations. 

Most of the wells ending in the sandy beds in Hueco Basin and 
the southern part of Tularosa Basin are finished with fine strainers, 
but the wells at the El Paso "waterworks are finished with casings 
that are perforated at all water horizons with slits 10 inches long 
and about one-half inch wide. It is estimated by the engineer in 
charge that when the air lift is applied to a new well a carload or 
more of sand is removed before the water clears sufficiently to be 
used. These wells are undoubtedly more satisfactory than they 



^1 



Fine sediments Sandwith irSand with water 



removed with water water,* /Gravel Gravel 



m)i 



Sg Clay 

%' ; "'' Gravel with matrix 
;-.» o ° °„ of f ine sediments 



Sand with water 



E>Z~ Soft clay Gravel Gravel 

5-3-2- that will — >j \ \i- 

£>3-~ cave readily 



Fine sand that SjS 



Gravel 

-Z-Z- Soft clay 
---3 that will 
l-Z-z cave readily 



will cave readily 
Fine sand i ! ! % Fine sand 



A 8 C D 

Figure 30. — Diagrammatic well sections showing methods of developing gravel screens. 
A, Method applicable where water-bearing bed consists of gravel with matrix of finer 
sediments, especially if there is a roof of hardpan that will not readily cave. B, 
Method applicable where water-bearing bed contains no coarse material or where roof 
consists of soft material that will cave readily. C, Method applicable where water- 
bearing bed is near the surface and the overlying material consists entirely of un- 
consolidated sediments that will cave readily. D, Method applicable where conditions 
are the same as in B. 

w r ould be if the sand that is removed were held in place by strainers 
of fine mesh. 

In the first Otis well the w T ater is admitted through circular per- 
forations three-eighths inch in diameter. At first this well did not 
supply the pump, and much mud and sand were lifted with the 
water, but after two days' pumping the water cleared and the yield 
was greatly increased. When the test was made, the capacity of the 
well far exceeded the capacity of the pump. 

ARTESIAN HEAD. 

At the time the investigation was made there were no flowing 
wells in the region except two situated on the floor of a broad arroyo 
on the farm of D. W. Shoemaker, NE. J sec. 1, T. 15 S., R. 8 E., 
about 8 miles southwest of the village of Tularosa and 1 mile north- 
west of Cerrito Tularosa. These wells are only a few feet apart, 

1 Blichter, C. S., The California or "stove-pipe" method of well construction; in 
Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, by M. L. Fuller and others : 
U. S. GeoL Survey Water-Supply Paper 110, pp. 34, 35, 1904. The same information is 
given in Water-Supply Tapers 257 and 277. 



WATER IN" VALLEY PILL. 123 

are respectively 2 inches and one-half inch in diameter, and are 
reported by the owner to be about 40 feet deep. The 2-inch well 
discharges a little less than 3 gallons per minute at an elevation 
9 feet above the surface, 15 feet above the normal water table, and 
4,137 feet above sea level. The smaller well yields much less. 
(See PI. XVIII, B, p. 158.) 

Three deep test wells have been sunk into the valley fill. One of 
these, drilled in 1905 and 1906 in the NE. \ sec. 26, T. 16 S., R. 9 E., 
a short distance west of Alamogordo, was 1,004 feet deep (fig. 11, 
p. 64) ; the other two, drilled in 1910 in the NE. J sec. 14, T. 18 S., 
R. 9 E., a little north of Dog Canyon station, were, respectively, 
1,235 feet and 1,800 feet deep. (See fig. 12, p. 65.) In the Alamo- 
gordo well the water stands 35 feet below the surface, or at nearty 
the same level as the water table in that locality. In the 1,235-foot 
well at Dog Canyon, which was cased only to 150 feet, the water is 
reported to have stood within 18 feet of the surface, or about 20 feet 
above the water table, when the greatest depth was reached. In the 
1,800-foot well, which is said to have been cased to 1,200 feet, the 
head is not known, but it was not sufficient to bring the water to the 
surface. 

Many of the wells in the region extend far below the water table 
and tap the second or third water-bearing bed. In most of these 
wells the water is under sufficient head to rise a few feet above the 
water table and in several it rises more than 10 feet above the water 
table. At the Otis well, in the SW. J sec. 8, T. 14 S., R. 9 E., the 
water table is about 20 feet below the surface, but the water from 
the bottom of the well, 58 feet deep, rose within 8 feet of the surface, 
and in another well in the same vicinity it rose still nearer the sur- 
face. In a well in the NE. \ sec. 3, T. 17 S., R. 9 E., the first water 
was struck at 22 feet and stood at that level, but water struck at 
depths of 80 feet and 125 feet is reported to have risen within 10 
feet of the surface, and it stood about 14 feet below the surface in 
the fall of .1911. Other examples of this condition could be given. 
On the other hand, some of the deeper wells do not appear to have 
any higher head than the shallow wells in the vicinity in which they 
are located. Where there are perched bodies of water, as is ap- 
parently the case in the shallow-water tracts southeast of Three 
Rivers station, the water level would be much lower in deep wells 
than it is in the existing shallow wells. 

In the Mound Springs (PI. XVI) and in several springs and 
water holes east of the white sands the water rises a number of 
feet above the surface and to a greater height above the water table 
(p. 53) . This artesian head seems to show that the water comes from 
considerable depths and rises through openings made in some way 



124 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

by nature. It must be regarded as a favorable indication in so far 
as prospects for flowing wells in these localities are concerned. 

Flowing wells can probably be obtained over a part of the area in 
which the depth to water is less than 25 feet. The prospects are best 
in especially depressed localities, such as the lower parts of the mid- 
slope arroyos, but it is possible that flows will also be obtained in 
other tracts, such as the shallow-water belt extending from the Chosa 
Spring to a point some distance south of the Lomitas Springs. It is, 
however, not probable that flowing wells will ever be an important 
source of irrigation supplies, because they are likely to be obtained 
chiefly on alkali land, and their yield is likely to be small and to 
diminish if much water is drawn from other wells in the same local- 
ity. Wells intended for irrigation should be sunk with a, view to 
developing pump supplies, and even if flows are struck it wili gen- 
erally be advisable to install pumps and thereby obtain larger, more 
dependable, and more elastic supplies than the natural flows are 
likely to furnish. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 
QUANTITY OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS. 

The mineral character of the waters from the wells, springs, and 
streams in Tularosa Basin and adjacent areas is shown by the 
analyses given on pages 268-305. Most of these analyses were made in 
the laboratories of the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, under the supervision . of Dr. R. F. Hare, but a few were ob- 
tained from the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad Co. and from 
other sources. About 115 of these analyses represent waters in the 
valley fill, exclusive of the thin deposits of waste overlying Creta- 
ceous, Carboniferous, and igneous rocks in the areas east^ west, and 
north of the lava beds. (See PI. XVII.) 

In the area north of a line passing a short distance south of the 
white sands, and in an indefinitely known area surrounding the 
Jarilla Mountains, practically all of the water of the valley fill is 
heavily loaded with dissolved mineral matter; south of this line, 
except in the area surrounding the Jarilla Mountains, the water of the 
valley fill, so far as it has been investigated, contains only moderate 
amounts of mineral matter. In the following discussion these three 
areas are recognized and called, respectively, the northern area, the 
Jarilla Mountain area, and the southern area. The northern area is 
assumed to extend to the middle of the tier of townships numbered 
19 S. The southern area includes the region extending from this 
line to El Paso, except the indefinite area surrounding the Jarilla 
Mountains. The recognition of the Jarilla Mountain area as dis- 
tinct from the northern area is rather arbitrary. The analyses given 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 



125 



in this report include about 100 samples from the valley fill of the 
northern area, 11 samples from the valley fill of the southern area, 
and 2 samples from the valley fill of the Jarilla Mountain area. 
Other waters from the valley fill near the Jarilla Mountains are, 
however, known to be mineralized. The samples from the northern 
area range in total dissolved solids from 752 to 259,000 parts per 
million, and those from the southern area from 292 to 630 parts. 
Exclusive of the specially concentrated waters, such as are found 
on the alkali flats, the average of total dissolved solids is 3,673 parts 
per million in the northern area, 4,217 parts in the Jarilla Mountain 
area, and only 421 parts in the southern area. The following table 
also shows the heavy mineralization of the waters of the northern 
area and the Jarilla Mountain area, and the comparatively light 
mineralization of the waters of the southern area: 

Number of samples from the different groups of water of the valley fill having 
specified quantities of total dissolved solids. 



Parts per million. 



Number of analyses. 



Northern 
area. 



Jarilla 

Mountain 

area. 



Southern 
area. 



Less than 200 

200 to 500 

500 to 1,000 

1,000 to 2,000 

2,000 to 3,000 

3,000 to 5,000 

More than 5,000., 






4 
16 
20 
28 
22 



CHARACTER OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS. 

The dissolved solids consist chiefly of basic and acid radicles, the 
most abundant basic radicles being calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), 
and sodium (Na), the most abundant acid radicles the bicarbonate 
(HC0 3 ), carbonate (C0 3 ), sulphate (S0 4 ), and chloride (CI). 
Only the constituents that occur most abundantly are included in 
the analyses given in this paper. In most of the samples, calcium 
and magnesium were the only bases determined in the laboratory, 
the quantities of sodium and potassium having been calculated, but 
in a few the sodium and potassium were separated and the quantity 
of each was experimentally determined, the amounts of potassium 
in these samples being shown in the table on page 129. The bicar- 
bonates, carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides were determined in all 
of the samples, but the bicarbonates and carbonates are reported 
together as carbonates. 

The radicles are for the most part disassociated when dissolved in 
water, but they are derived from compounds in which the basic and 



126 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



acid radicles are combined, and if through evaporation or other cause 
they are precipitated from the water they will again form com- 
pounds. In the tables (pp. 268-305) the dissolved solids are expressed 
in two forms; first, as radicles, and second, as combinations of these 
radicles. The first form of expression gives the fundamental data 
and is the only form in which water analyses are generally published 
by the United States Geological Survey ; the second form is passing 
into disuse because of the Irypothetical assumptions that it involves, 
but is retained in this joint report by the New Mexico Agricultural 
Experiment Station because of the utility it is believed to have in 
the interpretation of the fundamental data. (See pp. 265-267.) 

The following tables give a general view of the quantities of the 
more important constituents dissolved in the water of the valley fill : 

Average quantities of the principal dissolved constituents of the waters of the 
valley fill in the northern and southern areas. 



Parts per million. 



Northern 
area. 



Southern 
area. 



Percentage. 



Northern 
area. 



Southern 
area. 



Calcium (Ca) 

Majmesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate (CO3) 

Sulphate (S0<) 

Chlorine(Cl) 



362 
179 
541 
119 
1,725 



45 
21 
73 

108 

104 

60 



9.7 

4.8 

14.5 

3.1 

46.2 

21.7 



10.9 
5.1 
17.7 
26.2 
25.3 
14.8 



Number of water samples from the valley fill having specified quantities of dis- 
solved mineral constituents. 



Parts per million. 


Calcium 
(Ca). 


Magnesium 
(Mg). 


Sodium and 

potassium 

(Na+K). 


Carbonate 
radicle 
(C0 3 ). 


Sulphate 
radicle 
(S0 4 ). 


Chlorine 
(CI). 


a 
g 

r" 03 

is* 


d 

'— . 

— <o 
-~ u 
d a 



d 

g 

rj 03 

is 


a 

u 



CO 


a 
y 

_rj 03 

O ™ 
ft 


d 

g 

-d g 

CO 


d 

u 

ri 03 
M 


d 

CO 


G 
g 

r> 03 
O w 


d 

r*. <3 
g* 

co 


a 
t-t 

rj 03 

^ JS 

» 


d 

S-t 

CO 


Less than 100 


3 

20 
49 

26 




10 







24 

46 

22 

2 



4 


10 







6 
22 
37 
13 
10 
10 


7 
4 






23 
65 
6 

1 



4 
5 










10 

24 
35 
29 


7 
3 
1 





2 
20 
32 
21 

8 
15 


10 


100 to 200 


1 


200 to 500 





500 to 1,000 





1,000 to 2,000 





More than 2,noo 










CALCIUM. 



In the samples from the northern area the calcium content ranges 
from less than 100 to 755 parts per million, and averages 362 parts. 
In only 3 of these samples are there less than 100 parts. In about 
one-fourth there are less than 200 parts, in about one-half there are 
between 200 and 500 parts, and in about one-fourth there are over 500 



WATER IN VALLEY EILL. 127 

parts. In the samples from the southern area the calcium content 
ranges from 32 to 77 parts, and averages 45 parts, or about one-eighth 
as much as in the northern area. In the two samples from the Jarilla 
Mountain area the average amount of calcium is 250 parts. 

The calcium in the ground waters has been derived from both lime- 
stone (calcium carbonate) and gypsum (calcium sulphate). Cal- 
cium carbonate is abundant in both the northern and southern areas ; 
calcium sulphate is very abundant in the northern area, but rare in 
the southern area. Calcium carbonate is almost insoluble except in 
the presence of carbonic acid, and the amount dissolved by the water 
is therefore limited by the supply of available carbonic acid rather 
than by the supply of calcareous material. Since carbonic acid is 
not abundant in the soil of the arid regions, where vegetation is 
scanty, the amount of calcium that the water derives from the cal- 
careous material in these regions is rather definitely limited and is 
generally not large. Calcium sulphate is more soluble than calcium 
carbonate and its solubility does not depend, as does that of calcium 
carbonate, on the presence of carbonic acid, but it is not nearly so 
soluble as the sodium compounds and some of the magnesium 
compounds. 

The foregoing tables show that the waters of the northern and 
southern areas are nearly alike in their carbonate contents, but differ 
vastly in their sulphate contents. They indicate that the amounts 
of calcium carbonate dissolved in the two areas does not differ greatly 
and that these amounts are determined in general by the supply 
of available carbonic acid rather than by the supply of calcareous 
material, which occurs in great excess in both areas. They also 
indicate that large amounts of gypsum are dissolved in the northern 
area and only very small amounts in the southern area, and that 
the difference in the supply of gypsum accounts chiefly for the dif- 
ference in the calcium contents of the two groups of water. 

At the temperatures of the ground in this region calcium sulphate 
in the form of gypsum is soluble in pure water to the extent of about 
2,000 parts per million, 1 but it is much more soluble in solutions of 
sodium chloride and other salts. The calcium sulphate of 37 of the 
samples from the northern area, as estimated from determination of 
calcium and sulphate, ranges between 1,000 and 2,000 parts per mil- 
lion, and that of 7 samples (including those from Salt Creek) exceeds 
2,000 parts, the highest recorded being 2,597 parts. The calcium sul- 
phate of the two samples from the Jarilla Mountain area is estimated 
at 148 and 1,154 parts per million, respectively. 

1 Seidell, A., Solubilities of inorganic and organic substances, p. 97, D. Van Nostrand 
Co., 1907. 



128 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

MAGNESIUM. 

In the samples from the northern area the magnesium content 
ranges from 29 to 33,773 parts per million; if the specially concen- 
trated samples are excluded, it ranges from 29 to 751 parts and aver- 
ages 179 parts. In the samples from the southern area it ranges from 
10 to 57 parts and averages 21 parts. In the two samples from the 
Jarilla Mountain area it averages 170 parts. In the northern area 
nearly one-half of the samples contain between 100 and 200 parts 
of magnesium, about one-fourth contain less than 100 parts, and a 
little over one-fourth contain more than 200 parts. In the southern 
area they all contain less than 100 parts. 

The source of the magnesium has not been so definitely traced as 
that of the calcium, but it is probably derived chiefly from magne- 
sium carbonate associated with calcium carbonate and from mag- 
nesium sulphate associated with calcium sulphate. Most of the sam- 
ples contain less* magnesium than calcium, the average in both north- 
ern and southern areas being only about one-half as great. In several 
highly concentrated samples, however, the ratio is reversed, the 
amount of calcium being very small and that of magnesium very 
great. The large amount of magnesium in the concentrated waters 
is no doubt due chiefly to the great solubility of magnesium sulphate, 
and the small amount of calcium in the same waters is probably due 
to the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the strong solution of 
magnesium sulphate. 

A shallow ground-water pool, without discharge, in the mid-slope 
arroyo on sec. 9, T. 15 S., R. 9 E., contained water of a brownish 
color, probably produced by the action of the dissolved salts on vege- 
table matter, and was covered with a thin crust of precipitated salts 
locally called "ice." This water was found to contain 33,773 parts 
per million of magnesium and 122J573 parts of the sulphate radicle, 
but no calcium. If account is taken of the water of crystallization, 
about two-thirds of the total solids may be regarded as magnesium 
sulphate. As the pool does not discharge it is not probable that the 
concentrated solution exists in sufficient quantity to be of much com- 
mercial value. 

SODIUM AND POTASSIUM. 

In the samples from the northern area the amount of sodium and 
potassium together ranges from 36 to 98,000 parts per million. 
If the specially concentrated samples are excluded it ranges from 
36 to 3,383 parts, and averages 541 parts. In the samples from the 
southern area it ranges from 49 to 113 parts, and averages 73 parts. 
In the two samples from the Jarilla Mountain area it averages 848 
parts. In the northern area only 6 samples contain less than 100 






WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 



129 



parts, whereas 70 contain over 200 parts, 32 -over 500 parts, and 20 
over 1,000 parts. 

In 17 of the analyses given in the table the sodium and potassium 
are reported separately. All but two of these analyses represent 
waters that were derived directly or indirectly from the valley fill. 
Several of them are taken from the report on the potash investiga- 
tion of this region, made by the United States Bureau of Soils; 1 
several were made in connection with the present investigation ; and 
several were obtained from other sources. In the following table the 
data furnished by these analyses relative to sodium and potassium 
are assembled. These data indicate that the quantities of potassium 
are small in comparison with the large amounts of sodium and of 
total solids; they are therefore unfavorable to the prospects of re- 
covering potassium for commercial use. 

Potassium in the waters of Tularosa Basin, compared with sodium and total 

solids. 0. 



Sodium 

(Na), 
parts per 
million. 



Potassium (K). 



Parts per 
million. 



Per cent of 
total solids. 



Source of analyses. 



WELLS. 

SE. J sec. 8, T. 13 S., R. 8 E 

NW. \ sec. 13, T. 14 S., R. 8 E 

SW. -Jsec. 7,T. 14S.,R. 9 E 

S W. J sec. 26, T. 16 S., R. 9 E 

Army post well at Fort Bliss 

El Paso waterworks well No. 18 

El Paso Milling Co. well 

SPRINGS. 

Alkali flat (north end) 

Do 

Malpais Spring 

Sulphur Spring at Agency 

Pool in arroyo, sec. 9, T. 15 S., R. 9 E. . . 

Salt Spring 

Alkali flat (south end) 

STREAMS. 

Tularosa River at Agency 

Fresnal Creek 

Salt Creek 



424 
509 
700 
410 
51 
55 

94 



98,800 

75,000 

732 

44 

17,854 

3,620 

18,800 



44 

96 

7,000 



18 

17 

22 

Trace. 

6.4 

7 



Trace. 

1,200 

16 

4.3 

851 

Trace. 

Trace. 



4.3 

5.5 

Trace. 



0.4 

.4 

.4 

Very small. 

2.0 

2.2 

2.5 



Very small. 
.4 
.3 
.4 
.3 

Very small. 

Very small. 



.7 

.5 

Very small. 



Experiment station. 

Do. 

Do. 
Bureau of Soils. 
Experiment station. 
El Paso Water Depart- 
ment. 

Do. 



Bureau of Soils. 

Do. 
Experiment station. 
Indian Office. 
Experiment station. 
Bureau of Soils. 

Do. 



Indian Office. 
Railroad Co. 
Bureau of Soils. 



a For further data in regard to the waters in this list se„e the complete tables, pp. 268-305. 
regard to potassium, phosphates, and nitrates in the soil see pp. 179-180. 



For data in 



In the waters of the northern area the sodium is no doubt derived 
chiefly from the sodium chloride and sodium sulphate associated 
with the gypsum of the Carboniferous rocks and valley fill. In the 
southern area, where the gypsiferous rocks do not occur, there is 
evidently much less sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in the for- 



1 Free, E. E., An investigation of the Otero Basin, N. Mex., for potash salts 
Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils Circ. 61, 1912. 



U. S. 



48731°— wsp 343—15- 



130 GEOLOG? AM) WATKK RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

mations and consequently much loss sodium in the water. The 
sodium derived from the disintegration of igneous and other crys- 
talline rocks chiefly forms the carbonate, but where gypsum is present 
in sufficient quantity the gypsum reacts with the sodium carbonate, 
forming sodium sulphate. In the northern area the amount of 
sodium derived from the disintegration of the igneous rocks is 
wholly negligible, but in the southern area, where there is more 
igneous rock and much less sodium available from other sources, 
the sodium derived from the igneous rocks is apparently discern- 
able in the excess of sodium oyer the chloride and sulphate radicles 
in some of the waters. This excess seems to show that some of the 
water in the southern area has not come into contact with enough 
gypsum to neutralize the small amount of sodium carbonate result- 
ing from the disintegration of the igneous rocks. 

Throughout most of the region sodium chloride is the most abun- 
dant sodium salt, but in certain localities sodium sulphate predomi- 
nates greatly. In the southern part of the large alkali flat there are 
sodium sulphate deposits of sufficient purity and extent to be of 
commercial value. (See analysis A 42, pp. 310-311.) 

In both the northern and the southern areas the average sodium 
content is approximately one and one-half times that of calcium and 
three times that of magnesium. Because of the great solubility of 
the sodium salts, however, the range in the content of sodium is 
great, and certain samples contain very large amounts of this con- 
stituent. The water in the lower part of Salt Creek contains as 
much sodium and as much common salt as sea water, and several 
samples obtained on or near the alkali flats contain much more than 
sea water. Some of this water has been used for the production of 
common salt on a small scale ami it may in the future prove valuable 
for salt production on a Larger scale. 

ACID RADICLES. 

The acid radicles found in the water have been incidentally dis- 
cussed in connection with the bases. 

The bicarbonate and carbonate radicles, which are both reported in 
(he analyses as carbonates, are derived in part from calcium car- 
bonate and magnesium carbonate in the limestones and other forma- 
tions, and in part from carbonic acid of atmospheric origin. On 
account o( the limits of their solubility they rarely occur in large 
quantities. Expressed as the carbonate radicle, they range in the 
northern area, with one exception, between 30 and 312 parts and 
average L19 parts. In the southern area they range between 54 and 
795 parts and average L08 parts. 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 131 

The sulphate radicle, which is derived chiefly from the abundant de- 
posits of gypsum, is generally found in large quantities in the waters 
of the northern but in much smaller quantities in those of the southern 
area. In the northern area it ranges between 241 and 122,573 parts 
per million ; exclusive of the specially concentrated samples, it ranges 
between 241 and 9,379 parts and averages 1,725 parts. In the south- 
ern area it ranges between 30 and 250 parts and averages 104 parts. 
In the samples from the Jarilla Mountain area the sulphate radicle 
averages 1,494 parts. 

Chlorine, which is derived chiefly from sodium chloride, is likewise 
very abundant in the northern area but present in only moderate 
quantities in the southern area. In the northern area it ranges be- 
tween 55 and 186,200 parts per million ; excluding from consideration 
the specially concentrated samples, it ranges between 55 and 9,400 
parts, and averages 808 parts. In the southern area it ranges be- 
tween 13 and 193 parts, and averages 60 parts. In the Jarilla Moun- 
tain area it averages 1,043 parts. Nearly one-half of the samples 
from the northern area contain over 500 parts of chlorine and only 
about one-fourth contain less than 200 parts. 

RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO DERIVATIVE ROCKS. 

The high mineralization of the waters of the northern area and the 
Jarilla Mountain area is due primarily to the soluble constituents, 
chiefly gypsum and common salt, in the upper Pennsylvanian rocks 
(Manzano group) so abundant in this region. The smaller mineral 
content of the waters of the southern area is due (1) to the greater 
abundance of igneous and other crystalline rocks, which furnish but 
little soluble matter, (2) to the smaller amount of soluble matter in 
the Pennsylvanian rocks of the southern area, 1 and probably (3) to 
the absence in some localities of the Manzano rocks on the Tularosa 
side of the mountain divides. More detailed stratigraphic studies 
will probably show that the relatively small mineral content of the 
well waters in the part of the southern area that extends north of 
the Jarilla Mountains is due to the absence of gypsiferous beds of the 
Pennsylvanian series in the mountains adjacent to this part of the 
southern area, and that the high mineralization of the waters near 
the Jarilla Mountains is due to the presence of such beds in these 
mountains. 

The underground waters of the central part and perhaps of the 
eastern part of Estancia Valley are comparable in their contents of 
chlorine and sulphate with those of the northern area of Tularosa 

1 Richardson, G. B., U. S. Geol. Survey XJeol. Atlas, El Paso folio (No. 166), 1909. 



132 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Basin, but the waters underlying the extensive west slope of that 
valley contain much less of these constituents and are comparable 
with the waters of the southern area. In 34 samples collected from 
an area including all but the lowest part of the west slope of Estancia 
Valley the chlorine ranges from 7 to 25 parts and averages only 16 
parts per million. This west slope is largely adjacent to mountains 
composed of metamorphic rocks and Carboniferous rocks that are 
older than the principal gypsiferous horizons. The large amount of 
chlorine in the central area of Estancia Valley indicates that some 
of the bordering rock formations (probably certain of the gypsiferous 
beds of the Manzano group) are salt-bearing. It is, however, re- 
markable that in several highly gypseous well waters obtained near 
the gypsum ledge of the Mesa Jumanes the chlorine content is only 
25 parts or less. 1 

RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO DEPTH OF THE WATER TABLE; 

The following table shows the highest, lowest, and average amounts 
of total solids and also of chlorine for specified depths to the water 
table. It is based on the analyses of well waters in the northern area 
of valley fill, the waters south of the middle of T. 19 S. not being 
included. 

Relation of total dissolved solids and chlorine to depth of water table, in sam- 
ples from wells in valley fill north of the middle of T. 19 8., Rs. ', to 10 E. 



Depth to water table in feet. 


Number 

of 
analyses. 


Total solids, parts per 
million. 


Chlorine (CI), parts per 
million. 




Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average. 


Lowest. 


nigh est. 


Average. 




18 

30 
25 


1,670 

1,324 

752 

502 


15,000 

1 1 . 640 

11.092 

4,267 


4,371 
4,058 
3,406 

-',017 


144 

104 

55 

160 


2,858 

3,412 
4,457 

6S3 


591 


25 to 60 


717 


.V) to 100 


850 


More than 100 


303 







In areas where a rather definite relation exists between the quality 
of the water and the depth to the water table, a knowledge of such 
relation is of much practical value. The above data shows that the 
average mineral content of the waters in the valley fill decreases with 
increasing depth to the water table but that these differences are so 
small as compared with the differences in the specific samples which 
enter into the averages that they are of little practical assistance in 
predicting the quality of water where no analysis has been made. 
They show no decrease in the average chlorine content. 



1 Meinzer, O. E., Qeolog; ami water resources of Estancia Valley, N. Mex. : V. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Taper 275, pp. 4S to 53 and PI. XI, 1011. 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 



133 



RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO DEPTH OF WATER-BEARING BEDS. 

It is important to know to what extent the water of the deeper 
water-bearing beds is better than the first water encountered in sink- 
ing a well. The following list includes all valley-fill wells that have 
been investigated which extend 50 feet or more below the water table. 
Nearly all of these end in the second or third water-bearing bed. In 
many of the wells it was not possible to ascertain how effectually the 
first water was cased out, but in nearly all wells most of the water is 
no doubt drawn from the deeper beds. 

Mineral character of water in wells extending more than 50 feet below the 
water table, and comparison with average water in the valley fill (north of 
middle of T. 19 8., Rs. J> to 10 E.). 



Location. 


Depth 

of 
well. 


Depth 
to 


Parts pei 


• million. 












Town- 
ship 
(south). 


Range 
(east). 


Section. 


water 
table. 


Total 
solids. 


Chlorine 

(CI). 








Feet. 


Feet. 


- 




9 


8 


5 


252 


180 


3,341 


324 


14 


9 


7 


180 


18 


5,500 


807 


15 


9 


24 


140 


85 


2,632 


479 


15 


10 


31 


138 


86 


1,883 


417 


16 


4 


36 


120 


65 


6,100 


2,001 


16 


9 


23 


160 


54 


3,060 


669 


16 


9 


25 


186 


20 


1,680 


270 


16 


9 


25 


95 


33 


5,540 


357 


16 


9 


26 


80 


24 




700 


16 


9 


33 


122 




3,360 


315 


16 
17 
17 


9 
9 
9 


35 
2 
4 


200 

80 

130 




2,240 
3,288 
2,476 


496 
465 
510 




28 


17 

17 


9 
9 


3 

8 


135 
100 




2,584 
4,740 




24 


620 


17 


9 


23 


85 


30 


2,140 


244 


18 
Ave 


. 9 
•age for m 


13 


103 


41 
than 50 


1,804 


199 


r ells extending more 






feet below water table 




3, 273 


555 


Average for all samples from the va 


[ley fill of 






northern are 


i 




3,673 


808 











This table indicates that the average water from the deeper water- 
bearing beds is less mineralized than that from the first water-bear- 
ing bed, but it does not indicate that the average difference is great 
or that it amounts to as much as the differences between the waters 
of similar wells in the same locality. In some localities, as on the 
farm of C. W. Morgan, NW. J sec. 23, T. 16 S., R. 9 E., the second 
water is more highly mineralized than the first, but more commonly 
the deep water is better than the first. Advantage should be taken 
of such difference wherever it exists. 

No analysis was made of the water in the deep test wells near 
Dog Canyon, but Mr. S. D. Camp, who assisted in drilling one of 
these wells, reports that the first water was gypseous, the water at 
76 and 160 feet was good, the water at 288 and 565 feet was of fair 
quality but somewhat inferior to that higher up, and the water at 
890 and 1,200 feet was salty. (See fig. 12.) 



134 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON USE OF WATER. 

DRINKING AND CULINARY USE. 

The effects of specific quantities of mineral substances dissolved 
in water upon the health of persons who drink the water are not 
well understood. There are wide differences in the effects of the 
same water on different persons, and many of the supposed effects, 
both curative and injurious, are no doubt imaginary rather than 
real. It sometimes happens that virtually the same water is in one 
community avoided as unfit to drink and in another prized for its 
medicinal properties. The effect of any mineral ingredient is gen- 
erally greater on a person unaccustomed to the water than on one 
who has used it for a long time. Moreover, a person may at first 
object to a certain water because of the taste given by its mineral 
matter, but the same person after drinking the water for some time 
may become unable to detect any taste in it and may even prefer it 
to less mineralized water. 

Any classification based on total solids alone is unsatisfactory be- 
cause the different constituents do not have the same effects, and 
hence much depends on the proportions of these constituents. The 
calcium salts are less objectionable in water used for drinking than 
the same amounts of the sodium salts, and the different sodium salts 
are not equally objectionable. The older authorities on drinking- 
waters for England and the eastern part of the United States fixed 
570 parts per million as the extreme limit of mineral content. 1 This 
limit would exclude all of the waters from the northern area of 
valley fill that were examined. MacDougal, judging from experi- 
ence in desert regions, states that waters containing 2,500 parts per 
million of dissolved salts may be used for many days without serious 
discomfort; that those containing as much as 3,300 parts can be 
used only by hardened travelers; and that those containing 5,000 
parts or more are inimical to health and comfort but might suffice 
for a few hours to save the life of a person who had been wholly 
without water. 2 In Tularosa Basin, where many of the waters are 
practically saturated with calcium sulphate, the limits are possibly 
even higher than those given by MacDougal. Waters ranging up to 
2,000 parts of total solids are generally considered satisfactory for 
drinking, and where the proportion of calcium is especially high and 
that of chlorine especially low, waters containing 2,500 parts, or even 
more, may be considered satisfactory. The more gypseous waters 

1 Hare, R. F., and Mitchell, S. R., Composition of some New Mexico waters : New 
Mexico Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 83, p. 8, 1012. 

2 MacDougal, D. T., Botanical features of North American deserts : Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington Pub. 99, p. 109, 1908. 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 135 

ranging between 2,500 and 4,000 parts of total solids are considered 
potable although of inferior quality, but other waters that fall be- 
tween these limits but are richer in sodium chloride are avoided for 
drinking. A few waters ranging between 4,000 and 5,000 parts are 
used for drinking, but waters containing more than 5,000 parts are 
almost never used by human beings except in need. The water from 
the Point of Sands well is commonly used by travelers for drinking. 
It contains 4,804 parts of total solids, but it is practically saturated 
with gypsum and contains only 188 parts of chlorine. The water 
from the North Lucero ranch is so unpalatable that it was refused 
even by thirsty horses that were accustomed to drinking desert water. 
It contains only 3,019 parts of total solids, but 1,541 parts consist of 
chlorine. The water from the drilled well on McNew's ranch south- 
west of the Point of Sands is considered satisfactory. It contains 
3,044 parts of total solids and only 139 parts of chlorine, but it con- 
tains 2,009 parts of the sulphate radicle, over one-half of which is 
calculated as magnesium sulphate or sodium sulphate. The waters 
from the Mound Springs and Malpais Spring are very unpalatable, 
but are drunk by human beings when absolutely necessary. They 
contain approximately 5,000 parts of total solids, and although 
they are practically saturated with calcium sulphate they contain 
also much chlorine. The Malpais Spring water is worse than the 
Mound Springs water because it contains even more chlorine. The 
water of a spring on the alkali flat where cattle were seen drinking 
contains 9,413 parts of total solids. 

Water that contains 250 to 300 parts per million of chlorine in 
the form of common salt has a slightly salty taste, and water con- 
taining larger amounts is correspondingly more salty. The follow- 
ing generalizations can be made for the waters of Tularosa Basin 
whose analyses are given in this paper, except those in which the 
sulphates of sodium or magnesium are relatively abundant. Waters 
containing less than 300 parts of chlorine are considered good ; those 
containing between 300 and 600 parts are considered rather poor, 
but are used for drinking and for culinary purposes; those con- 
taining between 600 and 1,000 parts are considered bad, but are 
used to some extent for drinking and cooking in cases of necessity; 
those containing between 1,000 and 2,000 parts are almost entirely 
avoided by man, but are used for live-stock supplies where no other 
water is available. The water of Malpais Spring, which contains 
1,130 parts of chlorine, is very unpalatable and is rarely drunk by 
human beings, although it is given to horses. The water from the 
well of James Gililland, which contains 3,412 parts of chlorine, is 
given to live stock when necessary, but so far as possible it is di- 
luted with flood waters before it is used even for a stock supply. 
The water from the spring on the alkali flat where cattle were seen 



136 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

drinking was found on analysis to contain 3,348 parts of chlorine. 
Water containing over 1,000 parts of chlorine should, however, be 
given to horses with caution, especially if they are accustomed to 
good water, or if they are hot and thirsty. Numerous small fish 
live in Salt Creek in a locality where the water was found to contain 
13,295 parts of chlorine. 

About 100 parts of the sulphate radicle in the form of sodium 
sulphate, or glauber salt, are perceptible to the taste. Waters still 
richer in this constituent are salty and bitter. Magnesium sulphate, 
or epsom salt, is also perceptible when present in considerable quan- 
tities. Both glauber salt and epsom salt are laxative, and waters 
containing several hundred parts per million of these salts are 
prized by some persons for their medicinal properties. Nearly 
all of the waters of Tularosa Basin except those in the southern area 
are rich in sulphates. Calcium sulphate generally predominates, but 
in most samples the sulphate radicle is in excess of the calcium and 
was probably derived from magnesium sulphate and sodium sulphate. 

LAUNDRY AND TOILET USE. 

Because the waters of the northern area and the Jarilla Mountain 
area are all very rich in calcium and magnesium they are also very 
hard. Because the calcium and magnesium are derived chiefly from 
the sulphates these waters can not be softened by boiling or by treat- 
ing with lime, but they can be softened by adding soda in sufficient 
quantities. When they are used with soap some of the calcium and 
magnesium are precipitated and form a thick curd. Since the 
waters of the southern area contain only moderate amounts of cal- 
cium and magnesium, they are only moderately hard, and in com- 
parison with the northern waters seem very soft. 

BOILER USE. 

The waters of the northern area and the Jarilla Mountain area are 
all poor boiler waters and most of them are entirely unfit for steam 
making. Because of their very large content of calcium and mag- 
nesium they deposit great quantities of scale, and because the mag- 
nesium is deposited chiefly as an oxide and the calcium as a sulphate 
the scale is hard. Because these waters are also rich in sodium they 
foam readily. Moreover, attempts to soften them and thereby to 
remove the scale would introduce more sodium and would therefore 
make the foaming tendency still worse. Because magnesium as well 
as the sulphate and chloride radicles are generally abundant and the 
carbonate content is small these waters are also likely to be corrosive. 

The waters of the southern area are much more satisfactory and 
are used extensively in locomotive and other boilers. Because their 
contents of calcium and magnesium are not large, while their content 



WATER IN VALLEY FILL. 137 

of carbonate is considerable, they will form only moderate amounts 
of a rather soft scale and are not likely to be corrosive. Because their 
sodium content is not large they are not likely to cause trouble by 
foaming. 

IRRIGATION USE. 

Plants can endure a larger amount of dissolved mineral matter 
than animals, but the soil solution on which they subsist is generally 
more concentrated than the water applied in irrigation, for the 
reason that some of the alkali in the soil goes into solution. More- 
over, the irrigation water that evaporates leaves its soluble content 
and thus adds to the amount of alkali in the soil and to the concen- 
tration of the soil solution. If the soil has good drainage, the alkali 
can from time to* time be washed out, and highly mineralized waters 
can be successfully used for irrigation. If, on the other hand, the 
drainage is poor, even water of low mineral content may eventually 
cause the accumulation of alkali. It should be understood that one 
year or even a few years of irrigation do not give a fair test if the 
conditions are such that the alkali is accumulating. 

The calcium constituents of the water are not injurious to plants. 
Because of their low solubility they do not form a large part of the 
mineral content of concentrated soil solutions. The injury to plants 
is caused by the sodium salts, and perhaps, to a much less extent, by 
the soluble magnesium salts. Among the sodium salts, the carbonate, 
or so-called black alkali, is most injurious, the sulphate is least in- 
jurious, and the chloride is intermediate. In the waters of the valley 
fill of the northern area there is no sodium carbonate, but there are 
generally large amounts of sodium chloride and also important 
amounts of sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. The chlorides 
and sulphates of sodium and magnesium are together called white 
alkali. 

For watertf the type found in the valley fill of the northern area 
and throughout almost the entire irrigable area of Tularosa Basin 
the following generalizations, based on experience in other regions, 
can be made: Water that contains less than 100 parts per million 
of chlorine and less than 400 parts of total white alkali can be used in- 
definitely without injury to crops on soil not impregnated with alkali 
from other sources. Water that contains between 100 and 300 parts 
of chlorine and less than 1,000 parts of total white alkali can be suc- 
cessfully used on soil that does not contain excessive alkali from other 
sources and has fair drainage, provided precautions are taken to 
prevent accumulation of alkali. Water containing between 300 and 
1,000 parts of chlorine or more than 1,000 parts of total white alkali 
is poor for irrigation and can probably be used successfully only 
where effective drainage to remove alkali is possible. Water con- 



138 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

taining more than 1,000 parts of chlorine is of very doubtful value 
for irrigation, although it has been used successfully in a few places 
exceptionally well drained. In other words, water that contains 
enough salt to be perceptible to the taste can be used successfully 
from year to year only if precautions are taken to remove the alkali 
that will tend to accumulate in the soil, and water that is so salty 
that it is disagreeable to the taste is worthless for irrigation unless 
exceptionally good drainage is provided. 

Out of about 100 samples of water from the valley fill in the north- 
ern area, 2 contain less than 100 parts of chlorine, 37 contain be- 
tween 100 and 300 parts, and 37 contain between 300 and 1,000 parts. 
It is obvious that in using these waters for irrigation precautions 
must be taken to prevent accumulations of alkali. In the areas 
where flood waters can occasionally be obtained the best method 
will probably be to use the ground waters in connection with flood 
waters. The ground waters can be used sparingly when necessary 
and can be conserved by dry-farming methods of cultivation; the 
flood waters can be used whenever they are available and in as large 
quantities as possible in order to wash the accumulated alkali out 
of the soil. The imperviousness of much of the soil introduces 
another difficulty and may make it more feasible to wash the alkali 
from the surface than to leach it downward. 

Much of the water can probably not be used successfully on land 
that is poorly drained and does not receive floods. It is difficult, 
however, to fix limits. The water of Pecos River, which contains 
about 5,000 parts per million of total solids and has the same general 
character as the ground water of the valley fill in the northern area 
of Tularosa Basin, is being used successfully in southern New 
Mexico for growing many crops. Only about one- fourth of the 
samples in the northern area contain more than 5,000 parts per 
million, the average being 3,673 parts. (See p. 125; for quality of 
Cretaceous and Carboniferous waters see pp. 154, 173.) 

WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OYERLYING SEDIMENTS. 

AREA AND PROBLEMS. 

Rocks of the Cretaceous system (described on pp. 60-62) occur over 
most of the area between the younger lava and the eastern moun- 
tains, either at the surface or beneath a thin mantle of rock debris 
(PL XVII), and their stratigraphy and structure are such that they 
produce a series of rock barriers that impound the ground waters. 
Many wells have been sunk in the Cretaceous area, some of them 
entering the rocks and others ending in the overlying mantle of 
unconsolidated sediments, and nearly all obtaining sufficient water 
for domestic use and stock supply. In quality the waters differ 



WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 139 

widely, some being truly soft and some too highly mineralized for 
drinking. The principal problems in this area relate to the develop- 
ment of supplies for irrigation, but in certain localities water that is 
good enough for domestic use is needed. Data in regard to springs, 
infiltration ditches, and wells are presented first, and are followed 
by discussion of the general conditions and prospects. 

SPRINGS. 

The Cretaceous area contains numerous springs, in which respect 
it is in contrast with most of the Carboniferous area. Thus in the 
Cretaceous region between Three Rivers and Whiteoaks water issues 
from the ground at many places, but in the Carboniferous area of 
similar topography lying farther north almost no springs are found. 
None of the springs in the Cretaceous, however, compare in volume 
with the copious streams that escape from the Carboniferous lime 
stones in the Sacramento Mountains. 

Among the springs in the Cretaceous area are Nogal Spring, Ca- 
rrizozo (or McDonald's) Spring, Upper Coyote Spring, Upper Wil- 
low Spring, Chaves Spring, Lower Coyote Springs, Lower Willow 
Springs, Jakes Spring, Milagro Spring, and the numerous springs 
along Three Rivers. (See PL VI.) The principal data in regard to 
these springs are tabulated on pages 300-301 and in the list of water- 
ing places on pages 249-264. Some of them, such as Nogal Spring, 
Lower Coyote Springs, and Milagro Spring, are associated with 
rock outcrops ; others, such as Carrizozo Spring, issue from the debris 
mantle and are not near any rock outcrop ; but all of them are prob- 
ably produced by rock ledges which form dams that impound the 
underflow. 

Nearly all of the springs yield a permanent though small flow 
and are reliable watering places for range stock and travelers. The 
springs along Three Rivers together furnish enough water to irrigate 
considerable land (see p. 208), and Carrizozo Spring is used to water 
a small tract. A few others, such as Milagro Spring, are of sufficient 
size to irrigate very small fields, but most of them are too weak to 
be of any practical value for irrigation. 

INFILTRATION DITCHES, 

Where the ground water is impounded by a rock barrier it is 
brought near the surface, the water level being much higher above 
than below the barrier. If the barrier extends practically to the 
surface, the water overflowing from the underground reservoir may 
appear in the form of a spring ; otherwise it may seep across the 
barrier and sink to a great depth without coming to the surface. 
In certain localities, where the surface has considerable slope, it is 



140 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

possible to conduct water by gravity from an underground reservoir 
to the surface of the land at a point where the surface is lower than 
the water level in the reservoir. This can be accomplished by means 
of ditches or tunnels which tap the ground water and which by 
having slighter grades than the surface of the land, gradually lead 
the water to the surface; or it can be accomplished by means of 
siphons which draw water out of wells situated behind the barriers, 
delivering it at the surface farther down the slope, where the surface 
of the ground is lower than the water level in the wells. (See fig. 31.) 
Since the Cretaceous rocks include a series of barriers (p. 153), they 
give rise to conditions that make possible infiltration ditches and 
siphons, the conditions being especially favorable in the localities 
where the barriers form escarpments as shown in figure 31. 

One of the most successful infiltration ditches, at the I Bar X 
ranch, SW. J sec. 30, T. 9 S., R. 10 E., 6 miles east of Oscuro, is an 
open ditch, about one-eighth mile long, 6 feet wide at the bottom, and 
15 feet deep at its upper end. This ditch was excavated out of rock 
waste consisting of granitic gravel, and apparently does not touch 




Figure 31. — Diagrammatic section showing relation of underground barriers to the water 

table in the Cretaceous area. 

bed rock at any point. It is supplied by seepage from the gravel 
near the bottom and delivers about 60 gallons per minute of good 
water. (See analysis, pp. 300-301.) As shown on the map (PL VI, 
p. 26), this ditch is situated on the debris slope several hundred feet 
above the water level of the wells and springs nearer the railroad. 
It is less than one-half mile north of the point of the Godfrey Hills, 
and about the same distance south of a small rock butte, a position 
indicating that the conditions of shallow water in this locality may 
be produced by the damming of the underflow by impervious rock 
ledges. 

At Jake's section house, on the railroad, in the NW. J sec. 10, T. 9 
S., R. 9 E. (PI. VI, p. 26), there is a small west-facing escarpment 
of yellow Cretaceous sandstone, into which a tunnel has been run a 
distance of over 100 feet. Water of good quality seeps and drips 
into the tunnel and is discharged at its mouth in a tiny stream 
amounting to only about 3 gallons a minute. The supply from which 
this tunnel and Jakes Spring, about one-half mile farther south, 
are fed is apparently held by an underground barrier from descend- 
ing to the level of the much lower ground west of the railroad. 



WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 141 

About 3 miles south of Jake's section house, NE. \ sec. 28, T. 9 S., 
R. 9 E., on a sloping surface far above the dry arroyo a short dis- 
tance northwest, there is a shallow excavation in similar yellow 
sandstone which is nearly filled with ground water that could be 
brought to the surface by a gravity device. The water in this 
locality is evidently also held up by some underground structure. 

Milagro Hill forms an effective ground-water barrier. Near the 
south end of the hill flood waters have cut into the igneous rocks 
a notch through which some of the impounded ground water es- 
capes, forming Milagro Spring. In this vicinity the water level 
drops abruptly, being much higher east of the igneous sill or dike 
than west of it. In a shallow well sunk by Dr. G. Ranniger near 
the northeast corner of the SW. \ sec. 32, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., at the 
south end of Milagro Hill, water was found so near the surface 
that it was possible to conduct it by means of a siphon to the house 
at the foot of the escarpment. The siphon was used for some time, 
but because it filled with air and required frequent priming, it was 
abandoned and a windmill was used instead. In the hope of tap- 
ping the impounded water and obtaining an irrigation supply, 
Dr. Ranniger also extended a tunnel a considerable distance into the 
rock, but with the work done in 1911 only a small seep had been 
developed. 

Several gravity devices are in use in the drainage basin of Three 
Rivers. At the ranch house of Senator A. B. Fall, in sec. 25, T. 11 S., 
R. 9 E., an infiltration ditch is in successful operation, producing 
a small but valuable supply. Along the Carrizozo road, sec. 13, 
T. 10 S., R. 9 E., a short ditch and pipe-line system, heading on the 
upstream side of. an outcrop of igneous rock that blocks the under- 
flow, produces a supply of hardly more than 1 gallon per minute. 
The shallow water at this latter point is also shown by a well situ- 
ated near the bank of the arroyo a few rods above the ditch, in which 
the water stands only 5^ feet below the level of the stream channel. 
(See pp. 300-301.) 

WELLS. 
WELLS NEAR NORTH END OF. YOUNGER LAVA BED. 

Several wells have been sunk to depths of a few hundred feet in 
the vicinity of the north end of the younger lava bed. A few of 
these obtained small supplies of water, but others were unsuccessful. 

A well belonging to J. B. French is situated in the rincon at the 
northwestern extremity of the younger lava bed, about 5,500 feet 
above sea level. A 6-inch hole drilled to a depth of 208 feet, passed 
through 15 feet of soil and clay, then through 3 or 4 feet of basalt, 
then through clay, sandy shale, and finally dense blue shale that per- 



142 CiEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

sisted to the bottom. A small amount of water struck in a joint or 
seam between the depths of 88 and 105 feet, rose within 57 feet of the 
surface. To increase the yield a hole 4 feet in diameter was sunk to 
a depth of 102 feet and connected with the drilled hole, which was 
plugged at that level. The present yield of the combination well is 
reported to be 6 gallons per minute. 

The well of John Pramberg is situated near the center of sec. 2, 
T. 7 S., K. 10 E., about 5,400 feet above sea level (PL VI, p. 26). 
It was dug to 50 feet and drilled from this depth through " soap- 
stone" to a level 128 feet below the surface, where it entered sand 
that furnishes a small amount of water. It is not certain whether 
the shale and "soapstone'^of the French and Pramberg wells belong 
to the Cretaceous, to the Carboniferous, or to an intermediate rock 
s} r stem, but the soft black-alkali water in the Pramberg (analysis, 
p. 270) indicates that the formation is probably Cretaceous. The 
water in the French well is of the hard, gypseous type found in the 
Carboniferous rocks and also in the upper beds of the Cretaceous 
system. (See pp. 268, 269.) 

Between Pramberg's w r ell and the north end of the younger lava 
bed there was at one time a. rather deep well that is said to have 
yielded freely. Later another hole was drilled in the same locality 
to a reported depth of about 500 feet. This well is said to have 
struck seeps at depths of 90 and 220 feet, the water rising to a level 
80 feet below the surface, but the yield was only about 200 gallons a 
day. Another well was drilled by Gallacher Bros, about 1J miles 
east-southeast of Indian Tank (PI. I, in pocket) and scarcely more 
than 5,500 feet above sea level. It was sunk to about 400 feet, passed 
through sandstone, shale, and perhaps other formations, and en- 
countered a seep at the depth of 330 feet. The water is said to have 
risen considerably, but the yield was very small. 

WELLS ON THE NOGAL ARROYO SLOPE. 

Nogal Arroyo heads in the northern part of the Sierra Blanca, 
passes through the gap between that range and Tucson Mountain, 
and drains in a westward or northwestward direction to the 
younger lava bed, where its flood waters are impounded or flow 
southward along the edge of the lava. It is joined by an arroyo 
that emerges through the gap between Tucson and Carrizo moun- 
tains and by other storm-water courses (PI. VI, p. 26). The region 
drained by this arroyo is a smooth waste-covered slope with isolated 
outcrops of Cretaceous beds and associated igneous rocks, the Cre- 
taceous beds commonly dipping eastward (fig. 15, p. 68). The aver- 
age thickness of the rock waste is probably not great. Several score 
of wells have been sunk on this slope, but most of them are shallow, 



WATEE IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 143 

and although the mantle of waste is in many places thin, only a few 
of the wells have reached bedrock. 

Upstream from Walnut station Nogal Arroyo crosses numerous 
rock outcrops that produce conditions of shallow water. The ground 
water appears in springs at several points and is tapped by shallow 
wells that yield rather generous supplies of water of fair quality. 
(See analyses, p. 276.) A typical well of this vicinity is the dug well 
on the ranch of Joseph Vega, 1J miles upstream from Walnut, which 
has a water level 31 feet below the surface, only slightly below the 
arroyo level, and more than 100 feet above the valley at Walnut. A 
good well was at one time in use at the power plant of the Vera 
Cruz mine, situated in the valley at the south end of Tucson Moun- 
tain, near Vera Cruz station and only a short distance above Walnut. 
No definite information was obtainable in regard to this old well. 
According to some reports it is only 50 to 85 feet deep, but accord- 
ing to others it was drilled deeper. The water rose practically to 
the surface and the supply was abundant, although the rate of 
pumping is not known. 

In the vicinity of Walnut the arroyo passes through a valley about 
one -fourth mile wide in which the depth to water is less than 25 
feet, but on both sides of this valley the land rises and the depth to 
water is greater. Two dug wells situated near the arroyo about one- 
third mile below Walnut have a water level 23 feet below the surface, 
or 6,043 feet above sea level. They are pumped with windmills and 
are said to yield an abundant supply of satisfactory water. 

Farther downstream the water table remains near the surface along 
the arroyo, but exhibits some irregularities. In the first 2 miles 
below Walnut its depth increases gradually until it is nearly 50 
feet below the surface, but in the next 5 miles its depth gradually 
decreases, being 47 feet in a well in the NW. J sec. 12, 41 feet in a 
well in the SW. i sec. 3, and 17 feet in a well in the NW. \ sec. 32 
(PI. VI). The dug well of Joseph George, NE. J sec. 13, T. 8 S., 
R. 11 E., extends chiefly through clayey material, but ends at a depth 
of 52 feet in water-bearing gravel from which the water rises to a 
level 48 feet below the surface. The well is pumped by a windmill 
which at times of strong wind lifts 12 gallons per minute and fills 
a 50,000-gallon reservoir in 3 or 4 days. The dug well of Antonio 
Vega, in the NE. \ sec. 13, T. 8 S., R. 12 E., is 45 feet deep, has a water 
level 41 feet below the surface, and also furnishes water of fairly 
good quality. (Analysis, pp. 274-275.) Other wells in this vicinity 
are of the same character as the George and Vega wells, but none have 
been severely tested. 

Several wells drilled along the branch arroyo that heads north 
of Tucson Mountain are deeper and reveal a considerable thickness 
of rock waste. In a few wells the water stands about 100 feet below 



144 (iEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the surface, but the depth to the water table decreases near the 
mountain. The well of Fred. La Lone, in the SW. £ sec. 1, T. 8 S., E. 
11 E., is 10G feet deep, passes through 90 feet of clayey deposits, ends 
in 16 feet of sand and gravel, and has a water level 99 feet below the 
surface. In the well of F. J. Bright, near the southeast corner of 
the NE. J sec. 1, in the same township, the water level is 102 feet 
below the surface. A well situated one-half mile east of Bright's 
well was dug through clay and bowlders to a depth of 76 feet and 
its water level is 72 feet below the surface, but the supply is so small 
that it is easily depleted by a windmill. 

Below the shallow-water tract in the vicinity of sec. 32, T. 7 S., R. 
11 E., the water table appears to drop abruptly to nearly 100 feet 
below the surface, and then gradually to reapproach the surface 
until on the west side of the railroad springs break out in the ar- 
royos. West of these springs, in the vicinity of the lava, the depth 
to the water table is somewhat greater although generally less Jthan 
50 feet. In a belt extending several miles north of Nogal Arroyo 
(PI. VI, p. 26) there are several dug wells which are generally less 
than 100 feet deep, do not reach far below the water level, and have 
not been severely tested. 

>'" .LLOW AVELI.S IN THE VICINITY OF CARRIZOZO. 

The slope on which Carrizozo is situated drains in part into Nogal 
Arroyo and in part to the edge of the lava through smaller draws 
farther south. It is underlain by eastward-dipping Cretaceous beds 
which in most localities are covered with a thin layer of rock waste. 
Many wells have been sunk in this vicinity, but they are nearly all 
less than 100 feet deep and only a few of them enter bedrock. As a 
rule, they are dug through clayey material into a flesh-colored cal- 
careous hardpan. Most of them are pumped either by hand or by 
small windmills. They have not been adequately tested, but their 
yield is probably small. Since many of them extend only a slight 
distance below the normal water level they are likely to fail in dry 
seasons when the water level descends. 

A dug well in the NW. J sec. 8, T. 8 S., E. 11 E., 119 feet deep, ends 
in 9 feet of sandstone, which contains water that is not under pres- 
sure. The well of A. C. Wingfield, on the east side of Carrizozo, alsor 
enters sandstone. The drilled well of Mrs. M. L. Millican, in the NW. 
J sec. 23, T. 8 S., R. 10 E., which is 127 feet deep, is reported to pass 
in succession through 60 feet of "concrete," 20 feet of pale yellow 
clay, 10 feet of blue clay, 10 feet of yellow and brown sandstone, 23 
feet of blue " soapstone," 1 foot of " hard rock," and 3 feet of soft 
sandstone. The strata below the depth of 90 feet are probably Cre- 
taceous. A little water was struck in the concrete and somewhat 



WATER IN" CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 145 

more in the sandstones, but the yield is not sufficient to supply the 
windmill that is used in pumping the well. The water stands about 
80 feet below the surface. It is hard, but otherwise of satisfactory 
quality. (Analysis, pp. 274-275.) 

The water from the shallow wells in the village of Carrizozo is 
used for live stock, but most of it is too highly mineralized to be 
desirable for drinking or domestic purposes. The water from many 
of the farm wells is much better. (See pp. 154-155 and analyses, pp. 
270-279.) 

CARRIZOZO RAILROAD WELLS. 

Several wells were drilled at Carrizozo by the railroad company, 
the deepest of which was 1,125 feet. The sections of three of these 
wells, as reported by three different drillers (fig. 32), do not agree 
closely and are probably inaccurate in many details, but they furnish 
evidence that Cretaceous formations were entered between the depths 
of 50 and 100 feet and persisted throughout most of the rest of the 
distance penetrated. These formations consist chiefly of alternating 
beds of soft shale and sandstone, most of the water being found in 
the sandstone. 

Well No. 2, completed in 1903, found water at 41 feet but was 
carried to a depth of 161 feet where it ended in sandstone. It was 
drilled 12f inches in diameter and was provided with 40 feet of 91- 
inch casing. The water level is reported to be 35 feet below the sur- 
face, or 5,405 feet above sea level. With the cylinder set 60 feet 
below the surface the well was pumped at the rate of 50,000 gallons 
in 24 hours, or about 35 gallons a minute. The water is hard but 
of much better quality than the water in the shallow wells at Carri- 
zozo. (See analysis, pp. 272, 273.) 

Well No. 1, drilled in 1901 to a depth of 895 feet, is 12 to 8£ inches 
in diameter and was finished with 40 feet of 10-inch and 300 feet of 
7f-inch casing, both strings of casing being hung from the top. 
The well was drilled through numerous beds of sand and sandstone 
and ends in a thick deposit of sand. The water level in the com- 
pleted well is reported at 90 feet below the surface. With the cylin- 
der 400 feet below the surface the well was pumped at the rate of 
75,000 gallons in 24 hours, or approximately 50 gallons a minute. 
According to the analyses (p. 272) the water is of entirely different 
character from that in the 161-foot well (No. 2). It contains little 
calcium or magnesium but much sodium together with the sulphate, 
chloride, and carbonate or bicarbonate radicles. It is a soft, saline, 
black-alkali water, which may produce a mild cathartic effect. In 
boilers it may foam but will not form much scale. 

48731 °— wsp 343—15 10 



146 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAKOSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

No. 2 



i* p * No. 4 No. 1 

* wt Altitude B.440 feet above-sea level 





100 



Water 
levels. 
200 



m-ri 



600- 






700 



800 



900- 



Water^ 

1,000 

Water-* 



Waters 
1.100- 






1.1,-1 



II 



I 1 -I 



m 



ii.i 



!.!■!. 



■33 



"Earth" 

"Soapstone and sticky shale" 

Water level - 

limestone 
Sandstone 

"Soapstone" and shale 
Hard sandstone 
Brown shale 

"Soapstone" 



.•jrlAy 



"Malpafs" 



"Soapstone' 



"Gravel" 
Clay and gravel 
Clay 

Shale 

"Coal" 
Blue clay 

Shale 
Sandstone 

"Coal" 
Shale 

Sandstone and shale 
Shale and coal 



Shale 



Water level - 



Sand and shale 



Shale 



Sand and shale 



Shale 



Shale and sandstone 



White sand 
Sand 

Sandstone 
Sand 
MJray sand 



"Earth" 

Gypsum 

Clay 

Conglomerate 

Gypsum 

Conglomerate 



_ i£P£r£^. ' 'Fire clay " 



White sandstone 
Blue clay 
v Whtte sandstone 



Limestone 

Brown shale. 

Gypsum . 
White sandstone 

Limestone 

Blue shale 
Limestone 

Sandstone 

Figure 82. Sections oi' railroad wells at Carrizozo. 



WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 147 

The 1,125-foot well, known as No. 4 and drilled in 1906, is 17 to 10 
inches in cliameter and has 110 feet of 12-inch casing and 924 feet of 
10-inch casing extending from the top. It was drilled through muck 
shale and sandstone and ends in a thick bed of water-bearing sand- 
stone. A 50-foot layer of igneous rock was reported at about 500 
feet and thick beds of limestone at greater depths. The water level 
in the completed well is reported to be 193 feet below the surface, 
and the tested capacity is reported at 75,000 gallons in 24 hours, or 
an average of about 50 gallons a minute. An air lift was used in 
this well, the air pipe extending to a depth of 1,005 feet. The water 
is of the same type as that in the 161-foot well (No. 2), but contains 
only about one-half as much mineral matter. (See analysis, p. 272.) 

WELLS IN THE VICINITY OF POLLY. 

The land in the vicinity of Polly forms a sloping plain which is 
underlain by Cretaceous beds that outcrop in certain ridges but are 
in most places covered with rock waste. A number of wells have 
been sunk on this plain, a few of which end in unconsolidated sedi- 
ments, but most of which had to be drilled some distance into bed- 
rock in order to obtain water. 

The well of A. F. Roselle, NE. J sec. 19, T. 8 S., R. 10 E., which is 
6 inches in diameter and uncased, was sunk to a depth of 170 feet, 
the drill passing in succession through 70 feet of clayey deposits, 10 
feet of yellow sandstone, 15 feet of blue clay, and 75 feet of yellow 
sandstone. Hard but otherwise good water was struck at a depth 
of about 160 feet and rose to a level 128 feet below the surface. (See 
analysis, p. 274.) The yield has not been tested. 

The well of D. L. Bryon, SW. \ sec. 19, T. 8 S., R. 10 E., which 
is 6 inches in diameter and cased to the bottom, appears to end above 
bedrock at a depth of 163 feet. The water, which is rather highly 
mineralized but is used for drinking, stands about 123 feet below the 
surface and is believed to be ample in quantity to supply a pump 
operated by a windmill. 

The drilled well of M. W. Beagle, NE. \ sec. 25, T. 8 S., R. 9 E., 
which is 115 feet deep and in which the water stands 105 feet below 
the surface, is reported to end in gravel but to yield only a small 
supply. 

WELLS AT WHITEOAKS. 

The village of Whiteoaks was not visited, but a number of dug 
and bored wells are reported in that vicinity, ranging from about 60 
to 240 feet in depth. The ground water is so highly mineralized that 
rain water collected in cisterns is commonly used for drinking and 
for domestic supply. 



148 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 
SHALLOW WELLS IN THE VICINITY OF OSCTJRO. 

The Oscuro settlement is situated on a plain that slopes from the 
Godfrey Hills toward the younger lava bed with an average grade of 
approximately 100 feet per mile, but is separated from the lava bed 
by the Phillips Hills and Bull Gap Ridge, and is partly divided into 
an upper and a lower portion by Milagro Hill. It is underlain by 
eastward-dipping Cretaceous strata and by dikes and sills of igneous 
rock that are imperfectly concealed by a veneer of stream-deposited 
rock waste. Nearly 40 wells have been sunk on this slope, some of 
which are shown on the map forming Plate VI (p. 26). A few of 
these wells end in the unconsolidated sediments, but most of them 
have been drilled into bedrock and derive their supplies from Cre- 
taceous sandstones. If it were not for the dams produced by the im- 
pervious igneous and sedimentary beds the ground waters would be 
drained to much lower levels and it would probably be as difficult to 
obtain wells in this region as on the Carboniferous uplands north of 
Carrizozo. The underground dams produce irregularities in the 
water table; but since many of them are entirely concealed by rock 
waste, there may be nothing on the smooth, evenly inclined surface 
to suggest such irregularities. 

The well of George Castle, NE. J sec. 21, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., is 7 
inches in diameter and 175 feet deep and is cased only near the top. 
The water normally stands about 30 feet below the surface and is said 
to be lowered to a level 48 feet below the surface when the well is 
pumped at the rate of 50 gallons a minute. The plant was not seen 
in operation, but a test of 90 gallons a minute for several hours' con- 
tinuous pumping is reported. 

The well of A. Gschwind, NW. J sec. 28, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., is 7 
inches in diameter and 130 feet deep, and below the depth of 10 feet 
passes through alternating beds of sandstone and blue shale. Water 
was struck in sandstone at depths of 80 feet, 96 feet, arid 115 feet, the 
water from the lowest level rising within 70 feet of the surface. The 
well is reported by the owner to have been pumped 56 hours continu- 
ously at the rate of 18 gallons a minute and 4 hours continuously 
at 25 gallons a minute without noticeable effect on the supply. 
As shown by the analysis (p. 276), the water is hard but of good 
quality for irrigation. 

Two wells, respectively 67 and 108 feet deep, have been drilled on 
the farm of E. F. Jones, SE. J sec. 31, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., one-half mile 
east of Oscuro. In the 67-foot well, which is 8 inches in diameter 
and cased to a depth of 20 feet, water struck at 42 'feet rose to a level 
35 feet below the surface, or about 150 feet above the water level in 
the wells at Oscuro. At first the well showed signs of weakening 
when the pump was operated at 25 gallons per minute, but recently 



WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 149 

it is reported to have been pumped for several hours at this rate with 
the cylinder only 2 feet below the water level. The 108-foot well, 
which is 7 inches in diameter, is situated near the 67-foot well, but 
apparently does not tap the same supply. Water is reported to have 
been struck in it at 97 feet and to have risen within 33 feet of the 
surface, but the quantity is so small that even with the cylinder 70 
feet and the end of the suction pipe 90 feet below the surface the 
well will not continuously supply the windmill by which it is pumped. 
The water is of satisfactory quality for irrigation, as is shown by the 
analysis (pp. 276-279). 

The well of Kobert Young, SE. J sec. 5, T. 10 S., B, 9 E., which 
is 158 feet deep and cased to a depth of 130 feet, has been pumped 
at a rate of a little over 20 gallons a minute. Since the cylinder is 
set in the casing the water level could not be ascertained, but it is 
probably about 80 feet below the surface. As shown by the analysis 
(p. 278) , the water is mineralized to an extent that is unusual in wells 
in this vicinity, but comparable to that of the shallow water in Car- 
rizozo. 

The well of Anthony Borovansky, NE, \ sec. 9, T. 10 S., R. 9 E., 
which is 8 inches in diameter and 171 feet deep, passes through about 
40 feet of graver and clay and then through layers of shale, sand- 
stone, and igneous rock, receiving water at depths of 134, 160, and 
165 feet. The water rose to a level 108 feet below the surface, which 
is somewhat below the water level east of Milagro Spring, but ap- 
proximately 140 feet above that in the Jones wells and nearly 300 
feet above that in the wells at Oscuro. 

The well of E. G. Raffety, situated on the west side of the rail- 
road in the village of Oscuro, had reached a depth of about 200 feet 
at the time the region was visited in 1911, and was cased to a depth 
of 70 feet, the principal supply of water coming from 135 feet. 
The water stood 99 feet below the surface, or about 4,905 feet above 
sea level. The yield had not been tested. As is shown by the analy- 
sis (p. 276), the water belongs to the soft Cretaceous type. 

OSCURO RAILROAD WELLS. 

The two wells at Oscuro, respectively 489 and 965 feet deep, are 
among the few railroad wells in this part of the State that are still 
used for locomotive supplies. As in the Carrizozo wells, the ma- 
terials penetrated were somewhat differently interpreted by the dif- 
ferent drillers, but the reported sections, as given in figure 33, agree 
in showing a series consisting chiefly of alternating beds of soft shale 
and sandstone that probably belong entirely to the Cretaceous system. 

The 489-foot well, completed in 1903, was drilled 10 inches to 1\ 
inches in diameter and cased to a depth of 136 feet with 7f -inch pipe. 
Water was found at 275 feet and no doubt at other horizons, and is 



Depth 

Feet 





Altitude 5,016 feet above sea level 



Water 
level \ 



Water 



11 1 



Sand and clay 



Limestone 



150 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

reported to stand at a level 128 feet below the surface, or 4,890 feet 
above sea level. With the cylinder set 352 feet below the surface 

the well was pumped 
at a rate of 100,000 
gallons in 24 hours, or 
an average of nearly 
70 gallons a minute, 
but according to J. H. 
Kimmons, who is in 
charge of the plant, 
the maximum yield is 
at present less. As 
shown by the analysis 
(p. 276), the water is 
of the same type as 
that in the 895-foot 
Avell at Carrizozo, 
though its total min- 



200- 



Water- 



300H 



400- 



500- 



Water v 
600 -^ 



700 



TVater- 



800- 



5° 



ill 




Black shale : 



Sand and shale 



Black shale 



Sandy shale 



White sandstone 



Sandy shale 



Limestone 



Black shale 
Sandstone 





■ ;" ■■.;.:: 








v»\/j>^ 








£Hir£KE 








r^r^r---: 


- J 

Water level -*- 


j^= 




— --H 








?^---f-rr 


Water -> 




e=Eh 




-JB^-3.2 












-— ■- 




— *—. - 




■'.-.:•. ::'■ 




us _ : 




7r^- ~-~ 








H^H 



"Earth" 
"Concrete" 

Sandstone 

Porphyry 
Dark sandstone 
Black clay 
Gray sandstone 
Blue clay 
Blue shale 
Brown shale 
Black shale 

Brown shale 
Black shale 
Blue shale 
Sandstone and shale 

Sandstone and "fire clay'^ 

Sand 

Shale 

"Fireclay" 

Brown sand 

Sandstone 



Sand and shale 
Sandstone 

Sand and shale 

Sand and "fireclay* 1 
Sandstone 

"Fireclay" 



eral content is only 
about one-half as 
great. It is soft, 
black-alkali water 
that will not deposit 
much scale, but tends 
to foam somewhat in 
boilers. 

The 965-foot well, 
drilled in 1906, has a 
bore ranging from 16 
to 10 inches in diame- 
ter, and two strings 
of casings both hung 
from the top, one 13 
inches in diameter and 
55 feet long, the other 
10 inches in diameter 
and 490 feet long. 
Water was struck at 
various levels, as is 
shown in Plate XXI, 
but the largest sup- 
ply is said to come 
from the sandstone at 
750 feet. The water level in the completed well is about 100 feet 
below the surface, but the water from the 750-foot bed is reported 



Shale 

Limestone 
Sandstone 

Sandy shale 



= Black shale 



= "Soapstone" 



Figure 33. — Sections of railroad wells at Oscuro. 



WATER IN CEETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 151 

to have risen within 60 feet of the surface. With the pump cylinder 
set at a depth of 650 feet, the tested capacity of the well is 100,000 
gallons in 24 hours. At present the two wells are usually pumped at 
a combined rate of 115 gallons a minute. The water is soft and is 
charged with hydrogen sulphide, the sulphureted supply coming 
mainly from the 750-foot horizon. (See analysis, p. 276.) 

WELLS IN THREE RIVERS VALLEY. 

Shallow water is found in a large part of the open valley drained 
by the different branches of Three Rivers above the Palisades and 
along the main stream to within a short distance of Three Rivers 
station. A number of shallow wells have been sunk in this valley, 
most of which have been used only for domestic or live-stock supply, 
and have therefore not been severely tested. As in the other Cre- 
taceous areas, the underflow is repeatedly returned to the surface by 
the rock formations that act as barriers. In certain localities, wherg 
water is found in coarse sediments above bedrock, supplies adequate 
for irrigation can probably be developed. As shown by the analy- 
sis (p. 278), the water is as a rule not very highly mineralized and 
is of good quality for irrigation. 

Several wells recently sunk on the ranch of Senator A. B. Fall 
have been given rather severe tests. A well in the NE. J sec. 13, 
T. 11 S., R. 9J E., consists of a vertical shaft and a horizontal tunnel, 
both walled with timber. The shaft is 50 feet deep and has a cross 
section 5 feet square; the tunnel is 100 feet long and connects with 
the shaft at the 33-foot level. The material excavated consists of 
coarse stream deposits with numerous bowlders. The water level is 
8 feet below the surface and is said not to have changed materially in 
dry seasons. Pumping with a centrifugal pump at the rate of 500 
gallons a minute is reported to have lowered the water to the level 
of the tunnel, 33 feet below the surface. In a later test only 300 gal- 
lons a minute were obtained, but it was not certain whether this 
diminution was due to decreased supply or to an imperfect condition 
of the pump. Senator Fall states that after pumping the well for 
several days the water stood 2 or 3 feet below its former level and 
did not recover its normal position for some days. 

Another well, 5 by 5 feet in cross section and 50 feet deep, was 
sunk at a point several hundred feet from the well just described. 
Its water level is 8 feet below the surface and it is reported to have 
been tested at the rate of 150 gallons a minute. A large hole ex- 
cavated in the same locality was originally intended as a reservoir, 
but ground water was struck near the surface and the hole was 
therefore extended about 15 feet below the water level and is to be 
used as a source of supply. It has been pumped at the rate of 150 
gallons a minute. 



152 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Five wells, each 10 inches in diameter and 100 feet deep, have 
been drilled at Senator Fall's ranch house, E. \ sec. 25, T. 11 S., E. 
9 E. One is centrally located and the others are 30 feet from it, 
one in each cardinal direction of the compass. The central well 
has a dug pit 22 feet deep and is to contain a centrifugal pump 
that will draw simultaneously from all the wells. This well and 
three of the other wells struck water at 22 feet, penetrated a bed of 
gravel at 48 feet from which the water rose within 14 feet of the 
surface, and below the gravel passed through weathered shale that 
also bears some water. They had not been tested at the time the 
region was visited except that one of them had been bailed at a rate 
of about 15 gallons a minute. A striking example of the irregular 
occurrence of the ground waters in this area is afforded by the fact 
that the fifth well failed to find gravel, yields a very small supply, 
and has a water level 38 feet below the surface. 

WATER-BEARING CAPACITY OF ROCKS. 

The Cretaceous rocks consist chiefly of alternating beds of shale 
and sandstone. The shales yield little water ; the sandstones furnish 
supplies adequate for ordinary purposes to nearly all wells that 
have been drilled into them, but their capacity for irrigation sup- 
plies has not been fully tested. The railroad wells at Carrizozo 
were given only moderate tests, and there is no record as to the 
effect of these tests on the water level. The data in regard to the 
railroad wells at Oscuro are likewise indefinite, but in the 489-foot 
well the water level appears to be greatly lowered by even a slow 
rate of pumping. According to the reported tests Castle's well 
yields about 3 gallons a minute for every foot that the water level 
is lowered and Jones's 67-foot well yields somewhat more, but some 
of the farm wells yield less. Developments thus far made indicate 
that only small or moderate irrigation supplies can be obtained 
from wells deriving water from Cretaceous sandstones. 

Since the Cretaceous beds have steep dips, are in some places 
broken by faults, and contain irregular bodies of intrusive rock 
largely concealed by rock waste, different strata will be penetrated 
by the drill in different localities and the section that will be en- 
countered can not be accurately predicted. Over most of the area, 
however, beds of water-bearing sandstone will be found within 
the first few hundred feet of the surface, and if the water is not 
cased out the yield of wells will probably be somewhat proportional 
to the thickness of sandstone penetrated. 

The existence of deep water-bearing sandstones along the railroad 
and farther east is indicated by outcrops and deep- well sections, 
but their yield would probably not be much greater than that of the 
sandstones nearer the surface. The shales encountered near the 



WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 153 

north end of the younger lava bed are probably older than the sand- 
stones near the surface in the vicinity of Carrizozo and Oscuro. 
Whether they are underlain by water-bearing beds is not certain, but 
the conditions would seem to warrant further prospecting. 

In some parts of the Cretaceous area the rock waste above the bed- 
rock is dry or too thin or clayey to furnish more than a meager 
supply, but in other parts, such as the Three Rivers Valley and the 
upper reaches of the Nogal Arroyo slope, it is sufficiently coarse and 
porous to furnish valuable irrigation supplies. 

WATER LEVELS AND ARTESIAN" HEAD. 

The conditions determining the water levels in the Cretaceous 
area have already been alluded to and can be briefly summarized 
as follows: The ground water is derived chiefly from the mountains 
on the east side of the basin and moves westward or southwestward 
in the general direction of the surface slope (PL VI, p. 26). The 
Cretaceous rocks consist of alternating pervious and impervious sedi- 
mentary strata that dip toward the mountains and are intruded by 
masses of impervious igneous rock. The impervious beds form a 
series of underground dams that follow the strike of the rocks and 
lie athwart the course in which the ground water is moving. The 
ground water has adjusted itself to these dams in much the same 
manner as the water of a stream adjusts itself to artificial dams or 
natural barriers in the course of the stream. Like a vast stream of 
exceedingly slow motion it descends through the pervious strata 
from the mountains to the lowlands in reaches and rapids. Back 
of each dam the water is impounded in a reservoir composed of 
porous beds and the water table has only a slight gradient, but at 
the dam the reservoir overflows and the water cascades, as it were, 
to a lower level, where it is impounded in the same manner by the 
next dam in the series. Some of the barriers are visible at the sur- 
face but most of them are concealed beneath a smooth plain, and 
their presence can only be inferred from the irregularities in the 
water table that are discerned when wells are sunk (fig. 31, p. 140). 

The numerous irregularities of the water table make it impossible 
to predict confidently the depth to water in any locality where there 
are no springs or wells. The water table has, however, been found 
to be less than 100 feet below the surface over large parts of the 
Cretaceous area (PL VI, p. 26), and it probably occurs at less than 
this depth in most of the area except on the mountains, the large 
ridges and hills, and the upper parts of the debris slopes bordering 
the mountains. 

The total area of land in which the depth to the water table is 
less than 50 feet is difficult to estimate but appears to be approxi- 
mately 60 square miles. The largest tract is formed by the Nogal 



154 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Arroyo slope, the region about Carrizozo, and the adjacent bottom 
lands near the younger lava bed, and the tract next in size is in the 
valley of Three Rivers. Between these two tracts there are many 
smaller areas in which the water stands less than 50 feet below the 
surface. 

Nearly a score of small, detached, and widely scattered tracts are 
known in which the depth to the water table is less than 25 feet and 
others no doubt remain undiscovered. Their combined area, though 
not certainly determined, probably does not exceed 20 square miles. 
The largest shallow-water tracts are in the vicinity of Carrizozo 
and in the valley of Three Rivers. 

The Cretaceous strata dip in the wrong direction to produce arte- 
sian conditions. In the deep well at Oscuro the water from the 
depth of 750 feet is said to have been under greater head than that 
from beds lying near the surface, but the water in the completed well 
does not stand above the normal water level of that locality. In the 
wells at Carrizozo the head varies inversely with the depth, the water 
standing farthest below the surface in the deepest wells. Such de- 
crease in head is probably due to the structure of the rocks, as may 
be seen by inspection of figure 31 (p. 140) . A well drilled a short dis- 
tance above the spring shown in this figure would have a high-water 
level until it reached the bottom of the ledge that forms the barrier, 
but it would then communicate with the body of water below the 
barrier and its water level would accordingly drop. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The water from most of the springs and wells of moderate depth 
is hard but of good quality for irrigation and fairly satisfactory for 
drinking and household use, but the water from the wells in certain 
localities, notably the immediate vicinity of Carrizozo, is too highly 
mineralized for drinking or household use and of doubtful character 
for irrigation. 

The waters from the two railroad wells at Oscuro, Raffety's well 
at Oscuro, Braunstein's well southeast of Oscuro, the 895-foot rail- 
road well at Carrizozo, and Pramberg's well north of Carrizozo 
differ in character from other waters found in this region. They 
are all soft, black-alkali waters, containing much sodium but little 
calcium or magnesium. They appear to come from the middle and 
lower pa lis of the Cretaceous deposits and are probably typical of 
much of the deeper Cretaceous water. The Oscuro waters are good 
for drinking, cooking, and washing and are fairly satisfactory for 
irrigation and for steam making, although they have a tendency to 
foam in locomotive boilers. The Carrizozo water is so rich in the 
sodium salts that it is undesirable except for laundry and toilet use, 
for which it is well adapted by reason of its softness. 



WATER IN CRETACEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 155 

The water from the 1,125-foot well at Carrizozo is of the hard 
gypseous type and probably comes in part from Carboniferous rocks 
beneath the Cretaceous. The water from the 161-foot railroad well 
at Carrizozo is also of the hard gypseous type, but is much better 
either for domestic use or for irrigation than any of the water that 
was analyzed from shallow wells in the village. 

PROSPECTS. 

The supply of ground water in the Cretaceous area is not large and 
the cost of developing and pumping this supply for irrigation will be 
rather heavy, but the conditions in many localities are such that if 
intensive methods are employed rather heavy costs for water can be 
borne by the farmer. (See pp. 210-223.) Since the cost both of sink- 
ing wells and of pumping increases with the depth to the water table, 
the most favorable localities for obtaining supplies for irrigation are 
where the water is near the surface, and developments should first be 
made in these localities. It seems probable that on a large propor- 
tion of the 250 quarter sections, more or less, in which water is within 
50 feet of the surface, adequate supplies can be obtained to irrigate 
sparingly at least 10 to 20 acres. After a farmer has procured 
enough water on his land to render it self-supporting, he can from 
time to time add to his supply by sinking new wells. 

Where the material to be penetrated consists of rock waste that 
contains many bowlders it may be necessary to sink wells by digging, 
but in general irrigation supplies will be more effectively and eco- 
nomically obtained by drilling. Portable, cable, percussion drill- 
ing machines capable of sinking 6-inch or 8-inch holes to depths 
of several hundred feet are well adapted for this purpose. Much 
of the work, especially in rock, can be done without casing, and if 
reasonable precautions are taken to keep the hole straight the drill- 
ing should proceed rapidly and with few mishaps. In any locality 
where shallow water is known to exist a test well should be sunk to 
a depth of several hundred feet, but deep drilling for irrigation 
supplies is not advisable. The driller sinking such a well should 
note the depth, thickness, and character of each water-bearing bed 
that is penetrated and especially the changes in the water level as 
the drilling proceeds. Pumping tests should also be made at suc- 
cessive depths. Since a single well will generally yield only a small 
supply for irrigation it will commonly be advisable to drill a series 
of wells. Proper observations made when the first well is sunk will 
generally serve as a guide for future drilling. If in the first well the 
yield was not considerably increased or if the head was lowered by 
the last part of the drilling it may be advisable to finish the other 
wells at less depth. 



150 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

A series of wells can be pumped by different methods. If the 
water table is near the surface of the ground and above the rock 
surface, a hole a few feet in diameter can be sunk to the water level 
or a little deeper, and this hole can be connected at the bottom with 
the other wells by means of tunnels or open ditches. A centrifugal 
pump, driven by gasoline engine or other power, can then be installed 
at the bottom of the dug hole and can be connected with suction 
pipes extending into the different wells. Such an installation is 
rather expensive because of the cost of the tunnels, but it affords a 
relatively inexpensive and satisfactory method of pumping. An- 
other method is to put a deep- well cylinder pump into each well and 
to operate these pumps either separately or from a single source of 
power. The cylinder pumps have a fairly high efficiency if kept in 
good repair but they require considerable attention. To have a small 
gasoline engine at each pump would be expensive both for installa- 
tion and for operation; to have a single larger engine mechanically 
connected with all of the pumps would probably be more economical 
if great care were taken to prevent undue loss of energy in trans- 
mission. Where the supply must be obtained from a group of wells 
not easily connected and each yielding a relatively small amount of 
water windmills can be used to special advantage, one mill being 
set over each well. To avoid serious interference, the wells should 
be at least 30 feet and preferably 50 to 100 feet apart. 

Infiltration ditches and tunnels can be constructed in many locali- 
ties, and may in some places give good results, but these devices are 
generally expensive and are rarely under sufficient head to produce 
much water. Generally more water can be developed with the same 
expenditure by drilling wells. Before beginning the construction of 
such a ditch one or more shallow test wells should be sunk in the 
locality from. which the supply is to be drawn in order to ascertain 
the thickness of the barrier, the available head and the water-bearing 
capacity of the formation in which the supply is to be developed. 
The lower part of a ditch passes above the water level and will lose 
by seepage unless it is made waterproof. The flow may be so small 
and the seepage so great that no water will reach the mouth of the 
ditch. 

Deep drilling may be undertaken for the purpose of obtaining 
softer water than is furnished by the shallow beds, but deep prospect- 
ing for flowing water or other irrigation supplies seems inadvisable. 
At Carrizozo better water could be obtained by drilling even moder- 
ate depths into the sandstone. 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 157 

WATER IN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OTERLYING SEDIMENTS. 

AREA AND PROBLEMS. 

Carboniferous rocks, several thousand feet thick, underlie almost 
the entire northern plateau section of Tularosa Basin, and comprise 
the largest parts of most of the mountain ranges (PL XVII). They 
also underlie portions of the Chupadera Plateau and the Mesa 
Jumanes outside of this basin, occur in the mountains west of Es- 
tancia Valley, and form the extensive upland that is bordered on the 
west by Tularosa Basin and the Estancia Valley and on the east by 
the Pecos Valley. Since these vast upland areas are in large part 
destitute of streams, the question of obtaining water for domestic, 
live stock, and railroad supplies from the Carboniferous rocks has 
for years been one of vital importance. Failure to find adequate 
supplies has left large parts of the region uninhabited and has made 
necessary the hauling of water for great distances, as along the 
Belen cut-off of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, or the 
construction of costly pipe lines, as along the El Paso & Southwestern 
Railroad. (See p. 224.) 

The problem involves both the quantity and quality of water. 
Many rather deep holes have been drilled without finding any water 
or without finding enough to be of practical value, and there is gen- 
eral uncertainty whether the absence of water is due to impervious- 
ness of the rock or to a low water level. Most of the water that has 
been found is so hard that it is undesirable for domestic or locomotive 
use and in a few wells it is salty. 

In the following pages the detailed data in regard to the principal 
springs and wells are given first, after which the general conditions 
and prospects are considered. The discussion is not restricted to 
Tularosa Basin, but covers the entire plateau region of central New 
Mexico, which in regard to underground waters may be considered 
a unit. The well sections given in Plate XIX and figures 34 to 39 
are compiled from drillers' logs and are probably inaccurate in many 
details. 

SPRINGS. 

The Carboniferous rocks give rise to large springs in the Sacra- 
mento Mountains and to a number of smaller ones in the San An- 
dreas Mountains, but to only a few weak, widely separated seeps or 
springs in the Jicarilla, Gallinas, and Oscuro ranges and the Chu- 
padera Plateau. They also give rise to large springs in the Man- 
zano Mountains, west of Estancia Valley. The plain north of the 
lava beds is wholly destitute of springs, and the extensive Carbonif- 
erous uplands northeast of Tularosa Basin are also without springs 



158 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

except at a few of the isolated rock outcrops such as the sandstone 
ledges at Williams's ranch northwest of Vaughn. 

The largest springs in the Sacramento Mountains are those that 
supply Tularosa River, the principal ones being situated at the head 
of the stream, about 1 miles above the Mescalero Indian Agency, at 
a point in the main canyon three-fourths of a mile above the agency, 
and at a point in the North Canyon about one-half mile above the 
agency. According to measurements made by H. F. Robinson, en- 
gineer of the Indian Service, during 1906, these three groups of 
springs furnish more than one-half of the water of Tularosa River, 
or about 5,000 gallons per minute. At the largest springs the water 
flows from definite solution passages in the limestone. According 
to Mr. Carroll, formerly superintendent of the agency, the records 
of stream flow show that there are practically no seasonal fluctua- 
tions in the discharge of the springs and .only slight fluctuations 
from year to year, but that in spite of deficiency in precipitation, 
there has been a gradual increase in flow from 1906 to 1911 amount- 
ing to 1 or 2 second- feet. These springs are supplied from the 
water that falls as rain and snow on the Sacramento Mountains at 
higher levels, percolates through the ground, collects in the void 
spaces of limestone, and is fed to the springs through more or less 
definite channels. The underground reservoir is probably large and 
deep and the amount of water stored in it so great that its water 
level and the consequent yield of the springs is only slightly affected 
by fluctuations in precipitation. In a deep-seated underground 
water system the effects of fluctuations are transmitted with great 
lag and it therefore seems possible that the increase in the discharge 
of the springs may follow from the heavy precipitation preceding 
the dry years. 

The springs a short distance above the agency have deposited 
great quantities of calcareous material across the valley, thereby 
impounding the drainage and producing a peat bog of considerable 
extent (PL XVIII, A). Seepage from the bog. escaping through 
the travertine dam, gives rise to a small spring that has a strong 
odor of hydrogen sulphide and has deposited in its channel a beau- 
tiful coat of white sulphur, obviously derived from the vegetable 
matter of the bog. 

WELLS. 
WELLS IN THE TRANSMALPAIS HILLS. 

The hill countrv west of the vounger lava bed contains no wells 
except Phillips's well, several miles southwest of the Cerros Prietos. 
Lee's well, near the upper crossing, and several abandoned holes. 
There are, however, a few shallow wells farther west, in the foothills 
of the Oscuro Mountains. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE XVIII 




A. VALLEY OF TULAROSA RIVER, SHOWING AGGRADATION PRODUCED BY TRAVERTINE DAM. 




B. SHOEMAKER'S FLOWING WELL, WITH CERRITO TULAROSA IN BACKGROUND. 



WATER IN CARBONIFEROUS ROOKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 159 



Depth 

Feet 





100- 



200 



Reddish sandstone 



A well recently drilled by E. E. Phillips in a draw west of the old 
lava bed and about 8 miles west-southwest of Duck Lake (PL I, in 
pocket), is 732 feet deep, 6 inches to 4|- inches in diameter, and 
cased to the bottom. According to the driller's log, it passes through 
sandstone, limestone, and shale, as shown in figure 34, and ends in a 
bed of " quicksand " and gravel. The strata 
are probably all Carboniferous, and at the 
surface are seen to dip southeastward. A lit- 
tle water was struck at abouj; 300 and 500 feet 
below the surface, but the first supply of any 
consequence was found in the sandy bed at the 
bottom. The water rises but slightly above 
the top of this bed and apparently does not 
stand higher than 5,100 feet above sea level, or 
distinctly below the water level in French's 
well and the wells at Carrizozo. In October, 
1911, a pump had not yet been installed, and 
the yield of the well was not definitely known. 

A well belonging to James Lee is situated 
on the west side of the younger lava bed, a 
short distance north of the upper crossing, on 
ground approximately 4,900 feet above sea 
level (PI. I, in pocket). It is 152 feet deep, 
the upper 104 feet being a dug hole, and the 
remaining 48 feet a 6-inch drilled hole. It is 
reported to pass through gypsum, limestone, 
and " blue granite," and to end in sand, from 
which the principal supply is derived. The 
water stands about 90 feet below the surface, 
and the yield has been tested by pumping for 
12 hours at the rate of about 5 gallons a 
minute. 

A well was drilled near the west margin of 
the younger lava bed, about 4 miles south of 
Duck Lake (PI. VI, p. 26), and at a some- 
what lower level. It was carried to a depth of 
235 feet, and at 210 feet is reported to have struck salt water that 
rose within 50 or 60 feet of the surface. 



300; 
Seep 



400- 



mm 

r-rr 



500^ 
Seep 



600- 



Water 

level? 

700- 

Water 



-rrr 



rx 



rrr 



TO 1 

rrri 



nr 



w* 



1 1 11 



EE 



pro 



Limestone and gypsum 



Yellow limestone 



"Black" clay 
"Quicksand" 
"Gravel" 



Figure 34. — Section of E. 
E. Phillips's well, west 
of Duck Lake. 



WELLS IN THE OSCURO FOOTHILLS. 



Two dug wells, about 50 feet deep, are situated in an open draw 
on the ranch of Thomas McDonald, in Mockingbird Gap (PI. I. 
in pocket) , and extend through red detrital material overlying Car- 
boniferous red beds. In November, 1911, they were filled with water 



160 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

within 21 feet of the surface, and they are reported to yield a per- 
manent and rather plentiful supply. The accumulation of shallow 
water, which is known to exist along the draw for some distance 
above the wells, is apparently produced by impervious red beds that 
border the valley east of the wells and partly inclose it, the general 
depth to water in this region no doubt being great. 

A drilled well 30 feet deep at the ranch of A. C. Mills, on sec. 13, 
T. 9 S., R. 6 E (PI. I, in pocket), encountered water at 20 feet and 
near the bottom, and is reported to have been tested at the rate of 
13 gallons a minute. Like the McDonald wells, it is situated near a 
stream course that leads southeastward and is in a region where the 
rocks dip in a general easterly direction. In the vicinity of this well 
the valley is crossed by an outcrop of limestone and shale beds tilted 
into an almost vertical position. The conditions favoring shallow 
water are local, the underflow of the dry run apparently being im- 
pounded by the rock ledges. 

Several shallow wells at the Schole ranches, some miles north of 
Estey, were not visited, but are no doubt also dependent on relatively 
local conditions for their supplies. At the Red Canyon ranch the 
water stands so high that it is led to the surface by gravity. 

A dry hole several hundred feet deep is said to have been drilled 
at Estey. At that point, as in other parts of the foothills east of 
the Oscuro Range, the ground water follows the eastward dip of the 
rocks to the lower levels of the basin, except as it is held by some 
special structure. 

ANCHO RAILROAD WELLS. 

A group of successful wells, formerly used for railroad supply, 
have been drilled in Ancho Arroyo, about 2 miles upstream from the 
village of Ancho. Heavy beds of limestone and gypsum having 
the characteristic appearance of the Carboniferous rocks of this re- 
gion outcrop in the vicinity of Ancho. Near the village they lie al- 
most horizontal, but farther upstream they dip eastward. The out- 
cropping formations in the vicinity of the wells are yellow, red, and 
drab sandstones and shales with a steep northeastward dip. Be- 
tween Ancho and the wells a quartz diorite dike cuts the sedimentary 
beds and extends across the arroyo. The sections of three of the 
wells of this group are shown in figure 35. The upper few hundred 
feet of rocks penetrated consists of shales and sandstones of uncer- 
tain age, but the deeper beds, reached in the 855-foot well, consist 
of gypsum, red clay, and red sandstone that undoubtedly belong to 
the Carboniferous system. 

The well known as No. 5, completed in December, 1903, is 215 feet 
deep and is cased with 9|-inch pipe from top to bottom. The first 



WATER IN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 161 



water was struck in sandstone at 134 feet, and the water level in the 
completed well is reported at 128 feet below the surface. With the 



Deep well 



No. 4 



No. 5 



Altitude 5,016 feet above sea level 



200-:-3^:-z-: 

Water-* 
level 



300 



400- 



Red shale 

"Soapstone" 
Clay and gravel 

Blue clay 

Red clay 
Blue clay 

Red clay 









zzztzztzztz. 




rrrr 7 -- 








-_^^— 






Water^ 
Water level -* 






:-r .".'■'■ ■ . 




~- . 






Water* 


— : 



"Earth" and sandstone 
Brown sandstone 
Clay 

Red sandy shale 

Gray sandstone 
Red sandy shale 
Red sandstone 

Red shale 



"Soapstone" 
K Red shale 



; 


KSwtSS 








— — 




: - 




SS=H= 












— 


Water level -» 




Water-* 

















Clay and gravel 
Brown sandstone 

Red sandy shale 
Red clay 
Brown shale 

Red clay 
Red sandstone 
Red shale 
Brown sandstone 
Red sandstone 

Brown sandstone 

Red sandstone 

Brown sandstone 



Red shale 



'Hard" sandstoAB 



Red clay 



600- 



pump cylinder near the bottom, the well has 
been tested at 29,000 gallons in 24 hours, or 
about 20 gallons a minute. 

Well No. 4, completed in November, 1903, is 
238 feet deep and has 220 feet of 7f-inch cas- 
ing, of which 160 feet is perforated. The 
water level is reported at 114 feet below the 
surface, and the tested capacity, with pump 
cylinder 214 feet below the surface, at 63,000 
gallons in 24 hours, or about 44 gallons a 
minute. 

The 855-foot well, completed in January, 
1907, and provided with 712 feet of 6f-inch 
casing, has a water level about 210 feet below 
the surface. No definite test has been made, 
but with the cylinder 650 feet below the sur- 
face the yield is fairly abundant. 

The water tapped by these wells, especially 
the shallower ones, is more or less local in 
occurrence, as in the Cretaceous area. The 
water from the Jicarilla Mountains, in which 
the arroyo heads, is apparently prevented 
from sinking or percolating downstream by 
the impervious shale beds, which alternate 
with porous beds and which, by dipping in an 
upstream direction, form a series of under- 
ground dams. The dike some distance below the wells may also 
have a part in holding the ground water. It is significant that 

48731°— wsp 343—15 11 



700 

Water-* 



800- 



Water- 



Gypsum 



"Red rock" 



Red sandstone 



Red clay 



Red shale 



Figure 35. — Sections 
of railroad wells 
near Anche. 



162 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the head of the water in the shallow beds is higher than that of the 
deeper ones. In well No. 1, which is one of the shallowest, the 
water level was found in November, 1911, to be only 97 feet below 
the surface; in the deep wells on the same day a 165-foot tape 
failed to reach water. As nearly as could be ascertained the head 
ranges between about 6,000 and 6,100 feet above sea level. 

Two analyses reported by the railroad company are given in the 
table (p. 268), one of water from the shallow wells and the other 
of water from the deep well. These analyses do not differ greatly 
from each other, and both' indicate water of only moderate per- 
manent hardness. 

WELLS WEST OF ANCHO. 

Many holes several hundred feet deep have been drilled on the 
plain west of Ancho. Most of them were abandoned without obtain- 
ing a supply, but a few struck water and have made successful 
wells. Water does not occur at concordant levels in different 
localities. Comparatively deep, dry holes are found not far from 
shallower wells containing water, although there may be nothing 
at the surface to indicate a difference. The irregularity in the 
occurrence of the ground water appears to be due to rock structures, 
such as dikes and dipping sedimentary beds, which in certain places 
hold the water that would otherwise sink to great depths, but these 
structures are so generally concealed that they can rarely if ever 
be used as guides in drilling. 

A 6-inch drilled well on the old J. B. French ranch, 6 miles 
south Avest of Ancho and nearly a mile west of the railroad (PL I, 
in pocket), is 166 feet deep, and ends in white sandstone. The water 
was struck about 160 feet below the surface and rose to a level of 
about 154 feet below the surface, or about 5,600 feet above sea level. 
The well has recently been pumped at 22 gallons a minute. 

A 6-inch drilled well 150 feet deep is situated on the Horace 
French ranch, about one-half mile east of Largo switch (between 
Ancho and Coyote, PI. I, in pocket), where the surface altitude is 
about 5,950. The well is cased to the bottom, and its maximum yield 
is reported to be 8 gallons a minute. Between this well and the 
railroad, at nearly the same elevation, a dry hole several hundred 
feet deep was at one time drilled. 

Two drilled wells are situated at Warden's ranch, sec. 17, T. 4 S., 
E. 11 E., approximately 6,000 feet above sea level. One well is 
at the bottom of a rather deep depression; the other is near the edge 
of this depression on ground about 25 feet higher. Both wells pass 
through red sandstone and shale and through gray limestone. The 
lower well is reported as 196 feet deep, with water level 135 feet 
below the surface, maximum yield 25 gallons a minute; the upper 



WATER IN" CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 163 

well is said to be 232 feet deep, with water level 215 feet below the 
surface, and tested capacity 40 gallons a minute. As in the Ancho 
railroad wells, the lower head is found in the deeper well. 

Two drilled wells are in use on the ranch of James Cooper, situ- 
ated between the J. B. French ranch and Warden's ranch, about 6,000 
feet above sea level. Their yield was not ascertained, but one of them 
is reported to fail in dry seasons. 

WELLS NEAR GRAN QUIVIRA. 



Depth 

Feet 





100 



Several shallow wells have been sunk at Dow's ranch about a mile 
west of the ruins of Gran Quivira. (See PL I.) They are situated 
approximately 6,400 feet above sea level 
in a small sand-covered basin that seems 
to have no outlet. The well at present in 
use was dug to a depth of about 80 feet 
through clay and gravel and was cased 
with cedar logs. It is said to yield only 
a few barrels of water in a day. In 
October, 1911, its water level was 73 feet 
below the surface. Another dug well, 
similarly cased, is situated one-eighth 
mile farther south and on ground 8 feet 
lower. It is only 24 feet deep, and its 
water level is 23 feet below the surface 
or 40 feet aboA^e the water level in the 
first well. The water tapped by these 
wells is apparently a small perched sup- 
ply far above the general water table and 
is not so heavily mineralized as most of 
the water from the Carboniferous rocks. 
According to an indefinite report a hole about 800 feet deep was 
drilled on the upland north of Gran Quivira without finding water. 



200- 



300 



Water 



level 



S 



Water' 



400- 



FlGURE 36. 



Altitude 6,635 feet above sea level 
"Earth" 

"Dolomite" 

"Quartzite" 
Sandstone 

"Quartzite" 
Sandstone 



"Quartzite" 



Sandstone 

"Quartzite" 

Sandstone 

"Quartzite" 

Sandstone 
Red sand 
Red clay 

—Section of railroad well 
at Gallinas. 



GALLINAS RAILROAD WELL. 



A 10-inch uncased well, 414 feet deep, was drilled at the station of 
Gallinas in 1903. It passed through a great thickness of sandstone, 
as is shown in figure 36, and found water at a level 360 feet below 
the surface, or 6,275 feet above the sea, at which level the water stood 
in the completed well. The tested capacity is 100,000 gallons in 24 
hours, or nearly 70 gallons a minute. The analysis (p. 268) shows 
that the water is so strongly gypseous that it could not well be used 
in boilers without softening, although it would be satisfactory for 
stock use. 



164 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 
WELLS BETWEEN GALLINAS AND VAUGHN. 

A well 850 feet deep was drilled by the railroad company in 1904 
at Varney switch, near milepost 199, between Corona and Torrance. 
As shown in Plate XIX, the formations through which the well 
passes are largely limestone, gypsum, and red shale near the top, 
but include sandstones at greater depths. The well was finished with 
637 feet of 10-inch casing, of which 64 feet is perforated. The water 
level in the well is 357 feet below the surface, or 6,100 feet above the 
sea. The pump cylinder was placed 550 feet below the surface, and 
the well was pumped at the rate of 100,000 gallons in 24 hours, or 
about 70 gallons a minute. 

A well 1,139 feet deep, drilled at Duran by the railroad company 
in 1906, passes through characteristic Carboniferous rocks, including 
ied shale, limestone, gypsum, and some sandstone, as is shown in 
Plate XIX. Water is reported to have been struck at 500 feet and 
in several sandstones farther down and to have risen to a level 310 
feet below the surface, or about 5,960 feet above the sea. With 8- 
incli casing inserted to the depth of 873 feet and the pump cylinder 
set 700 feet below the surface, the w T ell w T as tested at 100,000 gallons 
in 24 hours, or about 70 gallons a minute. 

At Cedar vale there is a well 298 feet deep in which the water level 
is 174 feet below the surface, or about 6,250 feet above the sea, and 
other wells have been drilled on homesteads in that vicinity. In the 
vicinity of Torrance there are also a few wells. In the Pinos Wells 
and Encino basins shallow wells obtain water, and on the uplands 
between these basins and north and west of the latter, wells drilled 
into rock obtain water a moderate depths. 1 East of the El Paso & 
Southwestern Railroad, however, and in the region about Vaughn 
there has been little success in drilling for water. 

As shown in the analysis given on page 304, the water in the Varney 
well is very gypseous but not otherwise excessively mineralized. 
Although unfit for boiler supplies, it can safely be used for watering 
live stock. The water in the Duran well, as shown by the analysis, 
is also very gypseous and in addition contains a large amount of 
sodium. 

WELLS IN THE VICINITY OF VAUGHN. 

Deep wells have been drilled in the vicinity of Vaughn by both 
railroad companies and by the municipality. The sections of two of 
the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad wells are given in Plate 
XIX. One of these, situated at Tony, or the Vaughn passing track, 

1 I "or further information on the wells in and near Encino and Pinos Wells basins see 
Geology and water resources of Brtaacto Valley and adjacent parts of central New 
Mexico: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Taper 275, 1911. 



I 



I 



£ a 






i hi: 








If! 





f Jl 

1 IS 



IIP 



t m m 1 1 : < i, 

Hiii 
i li iililij 



II IT 

liLLiiili 



I 



s 1 

III Ijl ik 



Ifflililllillli 



'i i'i 



a s 



Uli 

.§2 "8 "8 
►j oca a: 






I 



I 



UJ 

2 



z 
I 
o 

< 
> 



z 
< 

3 <^- 

Q w 

w 

^ on 

> o 

z" -• 

< = 



I- c 
< o 

CO Q> 



< 

O 

oc 

< 

LL 
O 



£l 



CO 

Z 

O 

I- 

o 

UJ 
CO 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



VATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE ) 



Red shale 

Red shale 

Red shale 
Gypsum 



Yellow sandston 
Gray saodsieme 






gg: 



Gray sandstone 



Herd gray sandstone 
llow sandstone 



.„Hi 



SECTIONS OF RAILROAD WELLS AT VARNEY, DURAN, AND VAUGHN, N. MEX. 
Based on driller's logs (?). 



WATER IN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 165 

is about 870 feet deep ; the other, situated at Epris, a short distance 
south of Vaughn, is 1,355 feet deep. 

The 870-foot well, completed in March, 1906, is from 17 to 8 inches 
in diameter and is cased to a depth of 767 feet with 8-inch pipe. 
The pump cylinder was placed 840 feet below the surface, and in 
February, 1907, the well was tested at the rate of 12^ gallons a min- 
ute. The section includes large amounts of sandstone. The first 
water is reported at about 800 feet. In this well or a well of about 
the same depth at the same place the head is reported 600 feet below 
the surface, or about 5,250 feet above sea level, and the rate of 
pumping about 10 gallons a minute. 

In the 1,355-foot well at Epris, which was completed in June, 
1906, water was found as follows: A small amount at -820 feet, a 
supply of about 7 gallons a minute at 829 feet, other small sup- 
plies at 900 feet and 980 feet, and seeps of brine at several depths 
below 1,000 feet. According to the data furnished by the railroad 
company, the 829-foot water rose to a level 800 feet below the sur- 
face, or 5,250 feet above the sea, the 980-foot water to 900 feet below 
the surface, and the water from the sandstone near the bottom to 
880 feet below the surface. 

The water struck in these wells probably represents the permanent 
body of ground water underlying the plateau. Wells of less depth 
at Vaughn have failed to find water, and the sink holes near the 
town are unfavorable for the accumulation of shallow supplies. 
Small bodies of comparatively shallow water occur in certain locali- 
ties, as at Monroe Williams's ranch, 8 miles north-northwest of 
Vaughn, where there is a seepage out of sandstone, and on sec. 1 or 
2, T. 3 N., R. 16 E., where a well 218 feet is reported. Such shallow 
supplies have, however, been found only rarely, and except where 
they form springs their location can not be determined by surface 
indications. 

The water from the Tony wells is very gypseous, but contains only 
a small amount of common salt. (See analysis, p. 301.) The 829-foot 
water in the Epris well is of the same character, being reported to 
contain 2,807 parts per million of total solids, of which 2,678 parts 
are incrustants. The waters found below 1,000 feet are of a different 
type, in that they are not only very hard, but also very salty. The 
water from the 1,330-foot level was found by the railroad chemist to 
contain 240,000 parts per million, or 24 per cent, of total solids — a 
concentration about seven times that of sea water and greater than 
the average concentration of the water of Great Salt Lake. Most 
of this immense mineral load consists of the readily soluble sodium 
salts, but calcium and magnesium are also present in great quan- 
tities as is shown by the fact that the incrustants are reported to be 



166 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

more than 11,000 parts per million, or about four times as high as 
in the strongly gypseous water from the 829-foot level. 



Depth 
Feet Na i 




No. 2 



RAILROAD WELLS AT PASTURA. 

Two wells, respectively 341 and 857 feet deep, were drilled at 
Pastura railroad station. (See fig. 1.) The shallow well drilled in 

July, 1906, is 14 to 

Altitude 5,285 feet above sea level ^Q inches in diam- 
eter and is cased to 
a depth of only 
100 feet. The ma- 
terials penetrated 
consist .largely of 
limestone and gyp- 



100 



200- 



300- 



400- 



500- 



600- 
Water level ' 

Water-. 



700 



800- 



Water_ 
level 

Water, 



Limestone and gypsum 



Water- 



J 



Gypsum and limestone 



"Black" limestone 
Gray sandstone 



Sandstone 



Gypsum 



Hard "black" limestone SUm, Dllt include a 

thick bed of sand- 
stone near the bottom. (See 
fig. 37.) Water was reported 
in limestone at 200 feet and in 
gypsum at 290 feet, the head 
being 150 feet below the surface, or 5,135 feet 
above sea level. With the pump cylinder set 
336 feet below the surface the well was tested 
at 100,000 gallons in 24 hours, or about 70 
gallons a minute. 

The deep well completed in February, 1904, 
passed through 500 feet of material reported 
as limestone and gypsum and then penetrated 
about 350 feet of sandstone. It was drilled 
12 inches in diameter and cased with 10-inch 
pipe to the depth of 367 feet. The first water 
is reported to have been struck at 638 feet, 
and the head is reported to be 603 feet below 
the surface, or only 4,680 feet above sea level. 
With the pump cylinder placed 777 feet below 
the surface the well was pumped at 100,000 
gallons in 24 hours. 

The analyses given on page 304 show that 
the waters in the two wells are alike in con- 
taining great quantities of gypsum, but only moderate amounts of the 
sodium salts. The shallow water is a little more highly mineralized 
than the deep water. 



White sandstone 
White sand 

Sand 

White sandstone 
White sand 

White sandstone 



Figure 37. — Sections of rail- 
road wells at Pastura. 



WATER m CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 167 



WELLS NEAR PECOS RIVER. 



Depth 

Feet 
n Altitude 4,390 feet above sea level 

HHiSand 
Marl 
^White and red clay 

Gray sand 



100 



Seep 

Water. 
200 
Water' 
level 

Water* 



From the high region forming the eastern border of the Encino 
and Pinos Wells basins to the brink of the Pecos River valley, a 
distance of 50 to 75 miles, the plateau descends over 2,000 feet. In 
a zone several miles wide, bordering the Pecos Valley, wells have 
been obtained by drilling to moderate depths, but between this zone 
and the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad there are very few wells 
of any kind. 

A well drilled at Ricardo (see fig. 1, p. 12) by the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Railway Co. to a depth of at least 863 feet passed 
through sandstone, limestone, red shale, 
and gypsum, as shown in figure 38. It 
encountered a little water at about 150 
feet and more substantial supplies at 200 
feet, 250 feet, 295 feet, and probably 
other depths. The water level in the 
well is about 200 feet below the surface, 
or 4,190 feet above the sea (fig. 41, p. 
172) . The 200 - foot water - bearing bed 
yielded 6 gallons a minute, and the 250- 
foot bed 8 gallons, and when the well 
was 420 feet deep it was pumped at 20 
gallons a minute. Tests were made by 
the railroad chemists of the mineral con- 
tent of the water at various levels. A 
sample obtained at the depth of 300 feet 
contained 3,770 parts per million of dis- 
solved solids, and one at 510 feet con- 
tained 6,185 parts, both samples being 
especially rich in calcium and magne- 
sium salts. Water from the 595-foot bed 
is reported, however, to contain only 323 
parts per million of total solids. 

At Agudo (see fig. 1, p. 12) a well 208 
feet deep yields a small supply of fairly 
good water that stands about 155 feet 
below the surface, or a little less than 
4,100 feet above the sea (fig. 41, p. 172). One-half mile east of this 
station is a well that furnishes a large supply of satisfactory water 
that is reported to stand 196 feet below the surface. Other wells 
south of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway are as follows: 
SW. J sec. 28, T. 2 K, R. 26 E., a well with a depth of 80 feet to the 
water level; SE. J sec. 6, T. 1 N., R. 26 E., a well with a generous 
supply of fairly good water standing 140 feet below the surface; 



300- 



400 



500 



Watery 
600- 

863 



Red clay with seams of sand 

Dark-gray limestone 
Buff sandstone 

Gray limestone 

Red clay 

Gray limestone 
Red clay , 

Brown limestone 

Light-blue shale 

Red clay 

Red clay and sand 
Red and yellow clay 
Red clay and gypsum 

Gypsum and sandstone 
Brown sand 
Fine red sand 



Red clay 
I Coarse sand; 



Figure 38. 



Section of railroad well 
at Ricardo. 



168 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



Depth 

Feet 





100- 



200- 



'--T~i 



300- 






400- 



Water-. 
500- 



„r 600- 
Water-> 



700- 



800- 



Water- 



900- 



^Red sand 
Gypsum and limestone 

Soft brown sandstone 
Gypsum and clay 

"Hard granite" 



NW. i sec. 1, T. 1 N., R. 25 E., a well with a small supply standing 
110 feet below the surface; SE. J sec. 12, T. 1 N., R. 25 E., a well 
178 feet deep with a small supply of water standing 168 feet below 

the surface; SW. J sec. 18, T. 1 N., R. 

Altitude.4,170 feet above sea levet 26 E '> a Wel1 lT2 feet dee P with a g en " 

erous supply 152 feet below the sur- 
face; W. i sec. 32, T. 1 N., R. 25 E., a 
well 120 feet deep with good water that 
stands 109 feet below the surface and is 
yielded freely; NW. J sec. 32, T. 2 N., 
R. 25 E., a well with a good supply of 
satisfactory water standing 164 feet 
below the surface; and NW. £ sec. 31, 
T. 2 N., R. 25 E., a well 225 feet deep. 
The water in most of the wells that 
have been mentioned is considered 
fairly good, but some very hard water 
has been struck in this vicinity. 



ECT 



Crr 



LE 



TTT 



35 



ES 



XI 



CO 



nrr 



'-O 



"Granite and porphyry" 



"Brown shale" 
"Yellow porphyry" 
"Hard granite" 
"Soft porphyry" 
"Hard granite" 
"Soft porphyry" 
"Hard granite" 
"Soft granite" 

"Granite with iron seams" 



"Hard granite" 



"Blue granite" 



"Hard granite" 



Hard "black" limestone 



WELLS IN THE JARILLA MOUNTAINS. 

A well was drilled in 1902 at Oro- 
grande railroad station to a depth of 
960 feet. As shown in figure 39, it 
passes through a great thickness of 
granitic rocks, and in the lower part 
through nearly 400 feet of v limestone 
that is probably of Carboniferous age. 
It is 16 to 8 inches in diameter and has 
8-inch casing from the top to a depth 
of 806 feet. Saline water was struck at 
various levels below 480 feet (analysis, 
p. 298) , but the head and yield were not 
reported. 

In Lucy Flat, near the south margin 
of sec. 3, T. 22 S., R. 8 E., where the 
surface altitude is about 4,555 feet 
above sea level, a shaft was sunk to a 
depth of 250 feet and a drill hole to a 

Figure 39.— Section of railroad well depth of 160 feet from the bottom of 
at Orogrande. ^ ghaft The ^^ ^ 5 feet of the 

section consists of nearly horizontal beds of limestone and shale, below 
wliich granite is reported to the depth reached by the drill hole. 
The granite outcrops on both east and west sides of the shaft and 



Hard gray limestone 



WATER IN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 169 

seems to form an impervious basin which holds the water that per- 
colates through the limestone and shale. Water was struck a few 
feet above the granite and at present stands about 150 feet below the 
surface. Pumping at the rate of about 175,000 gallons a day was re- 
quired when work was done in the mine. According to the analysis 
(p. 298) , the water is not too heavily mineralized for domestic use 
although it contains much more mineral matter than the Orogrande 
pipe-line water. The underlying granite yielded no water. 

WATER-BEARING CAPACITY OF THE ROCKS. 

In the Tularosa Basin the Carboniferous rocks, except for a 
small thickness of Mississippian, are referred to the Pennsylvanian 
series and consist of limestone, sandstone, shale, and gypsum (pp. 
57-60). To the east, near Pecos River, a considerable thickness of 
younger Carboniferous rocks, of Permian age, is found. The lower 
part of the Pennsylvanian series consists chiefly of limestone, but 
^includes also considerable sandstone and shale; the middle part 
consists largely of shale and dense red sandstone; the upper part 
includes sandstone, gypsum, and limestone, with only minor amounts 
of shale. The shales, the dense red sandstones, and some of the 
more compact limestones are impervious or nearly so, but most of 
the Pennsylvanian rocks appear to be of sufficiently open texture to 
carry water. The yellow sandstones that belong to the upper part 
of the series are more or less porous. The limestones contain not 
only joints and small solution passages, but also many large caverns 
and sink holes, which show that these rocks are penetrated by de- 
scending waters. It must be concluded from a study of the Carbon- 
iferous formations as seen in their outcrops that the difficulties in 
finding water in these formations are not entirely due to compact- 
ness of the rocks. The system includes impervious members, some of 
which may be several hundred feet thick, but most of the strata are 
more or less porous or fissured and have the appearance of water- 
bearing rocks. 

This conclusion is supported by some of the data in regard to the 
yield of springs and wells. The largest springs in the Sacramento 
Mountains issue from limestones of the Manzano group. All of the 
wells in the Carboniferous reported by the El Paso & Southwestern 
Railroad, which as a rule are deeper than the wells sunk by the stock- 
men, found some water, and a number of them are reported to have 
been tested at the rate of 100,000 gallons a day. Moreover, the 
strongest artesian wells in the Pecos Valley are supplied from lime- 
stones, which, although representing a somewhat higher horizon 
than the limestones of Tularosa Basin, are apparently of the same 
general character. 



170 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 
WATER LEVELS AND ARTESIAN HEAD. 

Head produced by Sacramento Mountains. — The structure of the 
Carboniferous rocks in the Sacramento Mountains is favorable for 
producing artesian conditions in the Pecos Valley, but unfavorable 
for producing them in Tularosa Basin. The strata dip eastward at 
a small angle, but slope somewhat more steeply than the surface of 
the highland on the east side of the range. Consequently beds that 
outcrop on the highland pass gradually to some distance beneath 
the surface as they extend eastward, and in the vicinity of Roswell 
and Artesia their water is under sufficient head to rise above the 
valley level when tapped by wells. 1 On the steep west flank of the 
range, however, the edges of the formations are exposed, and the 
ground water that does not follow the eastward dip of the bedding 
planes escapes at these exposed edges in the form of springs. The 
Carboniferous strata that lie beneath the desert plain of Tularosa 
Basin are severed from the equivalent strata in the mountains by 
faults having several thousand feet of displacement, and they can 
not form an artesian system with the mountain strata. (See fig. 18, 
p. 75.) 

Head produced by San Andreas Mountains. — The structure of the 
San Andreas Range is similar to that of the Sacramento Mountains 
and indicates the absence of any artesian connection between the 
Carboniferous strata of that range and strata underlying the desert 
plain. The artesian prospects in the Jornada del Muerto lying west 
of the San Andreas Range are discussed by W. T. Lee in a report on 
the water resources of the Rio Grande valley in New Mexico. 2 

Head produced by Oscuro Mountains. — The structure of the 
Oscuro Mountains and adjacent parts conforms more closely than 
that of the Sacramento and San Andreas ranges to the requirements 
for an artesian system within Tularosa Basin, in so much as beds out- 
cropping in the mountains pass eastward beneath the surface of the 
lower lands in a manner somewhat comparable to the beds beneath 
the Pecos Valley. However, the strata dip more steeply and are more 
faulted, and there appears to be more opportunity for the water to 
escape to lower levels than in the Pecos artesian system. The low 
head of water shown by the wells sunk in the Carboniferous area 
west and north of the lava beds practically dispels all hope of ob- 
taining flows in this area. 

Water pockets. — The wells drilled in the Carboniferous area of 
Tularosa Basin west and north of the lava beds and on the extensive 
Carboniferous plateau north and east of this basin show that 

1 Fisher, C. A., Preliminary report on the geology and underground waters of the 
Roswell artesian area, New Mexico : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 158, 1906. 

2 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 188, p. 39, 1907. 



WATER IN CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 171 



Aacho 



Gallirias 



Corona 



Varney 



Torrance 



Durao. 



throughout most of the region the funda- 
mental water table is far below the sur- 
face. In certain localities, however, per- 
manent supplies of water are found at b 
much higher levels than are general in the | 
region, these perched supplies apparently £ 
being prevented from sinking by imper- . c 
vious structures that form underground I 
basins or reservoirs. In some places the £ 
ground water is dammed by dikes of * 
igneous rock but more commonly it is | 
held up by strata of shale, compact lime- > 
stone, or other impervious sediments. The fj 
sedimentary strata, by dipping at a steep g 
angle, may form a barrier athwart the g 
course of the underflow following some I 
drainage line, or by lying nearly horizon- g 
tal may form a floor which checks the * 
direct descent of the water. g 

Perched supplies were found in the e 

wells at Thomas McDonald's ranch, Mills's s 

ranch, the Schole ranches, and Gran 5 

Quivira, at the 300-foot and 500-foot r 

levels in Phillips's well, in some or all of I 

the Ancho railroad wells and the ranch t 

wells west of Ancho, in the few compara- I 

tively shallow wells in the vicinities of J 

Torrance and Vaughn, and in the shallow 5 

railroad well at Pastura. (See fig. 40.) * 

Perched bodies of water probably also I 

feed certain seeps such as Chupadera 5 

Spring and the spring at Williams's 2 

ranch, northwest of Vaughn. To some " c 

extent the large, elevated shallow-water 5 

bodies, such as are found in the Pinos s 

Wells, Encino, and Estancia basins, may t 

be perched (fig. 41). The ground water ; 

in the vicinity of Cedarvale, for instance, ? 
is adjusted to the water level of Estancia 
Valley, but it is apparently perched with £ f g § -g g % 
reference to the fundamental water level § g- ° ° °?| 
oi the plateau. » "* 

The supplies that have been developed by tapping elevated water 
pockets are generally permanent and reliable and consequently of 



Epris 

Vaughn 
Tony 



Pastura 



Pintaca 

>an±axtosa 
Pecos River 



172 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 







II ro 

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areuie^.tmoj'^ 



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in the region between the 
Pecos River wherever the 



great economic value. The drilling that 
has been done in this region, however, 
shows that these pockets are local and that 
in a well sunk at random the chances are 
against finding shallow water. In some 
localities there are surface indications of 
ground water, such as seeps or vegetation 
of certain kinds, and in others the struc- 
ture of the rocks is shown in outcrops to 
be favorable for the accumulation of 
shallow supplies, but over most of the 
region there is nothing at the surface that 
can be used as a clue to the conditions of 
the ground water. 

Fundamental water table in the plateau 
region. — On account of the numerous fail- 
ures in drilling, many of the ranch owners 
doubt whether any continuous body of 
ground water exists even at great depths 
below the plateau. The deep wells sunk 
by the railroad company prove rather 
conclusively, however, that there is a plane 
below which the pervious formations are 
saturated, although this plane is far from 
the surface. Figure 40 shows the profile 
along the El Paso & Southwestern Rail- 
road from Ancho to Santa Rosa and the 
water level in the deep wells drilled be- 
tween these points; figure 41 shows the 
profile between the Rio Grande and Pecos 
River along the Belen cut-off and the 
water levels along that line. At Vaughn 
the water level is about 5,200 feet above 
the sea, or 600 to 900 feet below the sur- 
face; in the vicinity "of Fort Sumner, in 
the Pecos Valley, it is about 4,000 feet 
above the sea, or nearly at the river level. 
If these levels represent the fundamental 
water table, then this table descends 1,200 
feet between Vaughn and Fort Sumner, 
or has an average slope of over 20 feet to 
the mile. It will probably be encountered 
El Paso & Southwestern Railroad and the 
drilling is carried to sufficient depth. The 



WATER IN" CARBONIFEROUS ROOKS AND OVERLYING SEDIMENTS. 173 

correlations of some of the ascertained water levels remain uncertain. 
For instance, the deep-seated water at Duran apparently rises to a 
level nearly 800 feet above the level of the deep water at Epris. On 
the Chupadera Plateau probably no wells would obtain water until 
they reached great depths unless by chance they found a perched 
water pocket. Even in the canyons of this plateau the depth to the 
fundamental water table is probably great. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The mineral character of the Carboniferous waters is shown by the 
analyses given in the tables on pages 268-305. The analyses (pp. 300- 
303) of the spring waters at the Mescalero Agency, in James Canyon, 
in Alamo Canyon, and in the Sacramento River valley show that the 
spring waters from the limestones of the Manzano group in the 
Sacramento Mountains contain only small amounts of mineral 
matter, but the other analyses show that practically all well waters 
derived from the Carboniferous rocks are highly mineralized. Prob- 
ably all of the wells enter older and more gypseous formations than 
those giving rise to the springs in the Sacramento Mountains. These 
well waters are all rich in calcium and the sulphate radicle derived 
from gypsum, some being much richer than others, and they are also 
generally rich in magnesium. In their content of sodium and chlo- 
rine they differ greatly, some samples, such as the water from the 
Gallinas railroad well, containing only small amounts of either of 
these constituents, and others, such as the 1,330- foot water at Epris, 
being nearly concentrated brines. It should be noted, however, 
that only a small proportion of the Carboniferous waters thus far 
discovered are salty. The evidence at hand indicates that although 
some salt deposits occur in the Carboniferous rocks, such deposits are 
not abundant and salt is not found in considerable amounts in all 
of the gypsum deposits. 

As the Carboniferous well waters are rich in calcium and mag- 
nesium, they are hard and deposit large amounts of scale when used 
in boilers. Some of the waters, especially those from shallow sources, 
are fairly satisfactory for domestic use and for drinking, but many 
are either undesirable or wholly unfit' for these uses. In addition 
to their great hardness the more highly mineralized waters are so 
heavily loaded with sulphates and chlorides that they are unpalatable 
and may have a cathartic effect. So unsatisfactory were the supplies 
from the railroad wells for use in locomotives, even after they had 
been treated, that these wells have been generally abandoned. It is 
important, however, to understand that with a few exceptions, such 
as the deep water at Epris, the Carboniferous supplies are not unde- 
sirable for watering live stock. Nearly all of the supplies from the 
railroad wells could have been used for this purpose. 



174 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



PROSPECTS. 

The chances of finding bodies of ground water at shallow depths 
on the plateaus of central New Mexico underlain by Carboniferous 
rocks are so poor that except where there are definite indications of 
water it is not advisable for any one to undertake drilling unless 
he is prepared to sink to the level where the fundamental water 
table may be expected. If the site chosen is as low as possible a fair 
test will usually be made by sinking 1,000 feet, and in many locali- 
ties water will be struck before reaching this depth. ( Figs. 40 and 41. ) 
If it happens, however, that a thick impervious formation occurs 
at the horizon where the water table would normally be encoun- 
tered, the hole must be carried to an unusual depth before water is 
found (fig. 42). 



Successful 
well 



Dry hole 




Porous 



Impervious bed 



Porous 



Figure 42. 



900 



-Hypothetical section to explain dry holes of great depth on the central 
plateaus of New Mexico. 



The expense of drilling to the necessary depths is so considerable 
and the water is as a rule so highly mineralized that further drilling 
is in general not advisable except to obtain supplies for live stock. 
There are some chances of failure to find satisfactory supplies even 
for this purpose, but there is reason to expect that in most localities 
an adequate quantity of water good enough for stock use can be 
developed by deep drilling, and in view of the lack of watering places 
and the value of the region for grazing further prospecting for deep 
supplies would seem to be justified. The work can best be done with 
a standard portable cable percussion rig designed to drill at least 
1,000 feet. Because of the scarcity of water and its poor quality for 
boiler feed a gasoline engine is preferable to a steam engine for 
producing power to operate the drill. Drilling in the Carboniferous 



WATER IN IGNEOUS ROCKS. 175 

rocks is not difficult, except where the formations dip at a steep angle, 
thereby tending to deflect the drill and throw the hole out of align- 
ment. Casing will not be required unless caving materials are 
encountered or the water is found in incoherent sand that requires a 
strainer. Where the water remains several hundred feet below the 
surface it is necessary to install deep-well pumps of special strength, 
and the expense for operation and repairs will be considerable. A 
gasoline engine will be best adapted for generating the power for 
pumping. A permanent derrick should be built over the well so 
that when the pump needs repairs it can be lifted by means of the 
engine used in pumping. 

Where shallow water is known to exist, supplies large enough for 
a ranch can generally be developed. At Gran Quivira the amount of 
water is no doubt small, yet it is not improbable that by sinking 
shafts and extending tunnels below the water level a supply sufficient 
for watering large flocks of sheep could be obtained. 

In some of the valleys of the Sacramento Mountains additional 
supplies for irrigation could possibly be developed by drilling wells, 
and in a few other shallow-water tracts, such as those at Thomas 
McDonald's ranch and A. C. Mills's ranch, sufficient water could be 
obtained to irrigate gardens and small orchards. 

WATER IN IGNEOUS ROCKS. 

In many places where igneous rocks are associated with sedimen- 
tary beds they form impervious basins that impound ground water 
or barriers that bring it to the surface, many examples of which are 
furnished in the Cretaceous areas and some in the Carboniferous 
areas of this region. Where igneous rocks lie at the surface small 
supplies of water containing but little mineral matter are likely to 
be found in the weathered zone near the surface. In such places the 
water table generally fluctuates with the rainfall, and the yield of 
springs is variable. 

The deeper parts of the igneous bodies are generally barren of 
water or contain only small supplies along the veins and fracture 
planes. Exceptionally, however, as in the deep well near Jicarilla, 
open veins are struck that yield water freely. The Jicarilla well is 
situated at a high altitude in the mountains east of the settlement, 
and penetrates granitic rock to a depth of 402 feet, where it is re- 
ported to have struck a cavity from which the water rose under 
pressure. According to reports the well was pumped for 48 hours, 
with the cylinder about 100 feet below the surface, at a rate of 150 
gallons a minute. The water is conducted through a small pipe line 
to the village of Jicarilla, where it forms practically the only sup- 
ply. As shown by the analysis (p. 268), this water contains only 
moderate amounts of mineral matter. 



176 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

SOIL AND NATIVE VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 

TYPES OF SOIL. 

The soils that are more or less suitable for agriculture can be 
grouped as (1) the red adobe soils, (2) the gypseous soils, (3) the 
more ordinary loam soils (east and north of the lava beds, in the 
southern part of the basin, in the mountain valleys, and in some other 
localities), and (4) the sandy soils (in the southern part of the basin 
and in other localities). The soils that produce more or less desert 
vegetation but are practically worthless for agriculture can be 
grouped as (1) the gravelly and bowldery deposits, (2) the quartz 
sands of the dune areas, (3) the gypsum sands, (4) the alkali clays, 
and (5) the waste in the crevices of the lava beds. 

The red adobe soils are typically developed on the slopes adjacent 
to the Sacramento Mountains, but are found on all the slopes adja- 
cent to ranges formed of Carboniferous rocks. (See the detailed 
descriptions on pp. 199-206.) They consist of a matrix of clay and 
included coarser particles. The proportion of clay is not the same in 
different localities, but is generally large enough to give the soil 
plasticity and the other attributes of a clay loam. As a rule the adobe 
at the higher levels contains the largest proportion of silt, grit, and 
gravel, and the adobe at the lower levels is the heaviest and most 
clayey. The red soil that was deposited along the margins of the 
younger lava bed, on the floors of the mid-slope arroyos, and in the 
undrained depressions of the gypseous plain is as a rule less firmly 
compacted than the older deposits and becomes very miry when wet. 

The adobe soils can in general be made very productive with 
proper irrigation and cultivation, as has been proved in the areas 
under irrigation. They become miry when wet and bake when dry, 
although the gypsum and calcareous material that they contain makes 
them more friable than other clay soils of the same constituency. 
They require much cultivation, but if properly tilled will hold the 
soil moisture well. When they are wet cultivation tends to puddle 
them and thus destroy their tilth. Like most desert soils, they do not 
contain much humus or other nitrogenous matter. The application 
of manure and the raising of crops, especially nitrogen-producing 
crops, such as alfalfa, will improve these soils, both by supplying 
them with nitrogenous matter and by making them more mellow 
and porous. 

The gypseous soils occur in the interior of the basin, chiefly on 
the east side between the adobe soils and the white sands, and in 
the areas north and south of the alkali flats. (See the detailed 
description on pp. 199-206.) These soils are pale in color and loose, 
powdery, or crystalline in texture. In their content of gypsum they 
range from gypseous loam that blends imperceptibly with the red 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 177 

adobe to nearly pure gypsum, the proportion of gypsum increasing in 
general toward the interior of the basin. The upper layer of soil, a 
foot or more in thickness, is generally somewhat clayey and gray or 
brownish in color. It is underlain by a light cream-colored subsoil 
that is generally 5 feet or more in thickness and consists largely of 
gypsum and calcium carbonate. This subsoil gradually gives place 
downward to red clay or adobe. In many localities adobe has been 
washed over the gypseous formation with the result that there is an 
adobe soil and a gypsum subsoil. (See fig. 43, p. 187.) The subsoil in 
the Schofield section (fig. 17, p. 70) contains 60 per cent of calcium 
sulphate and 12^ per cent of calcium carbonate. 

Where the gypseous soils are not clayey they will allow irrigation 
waters to seep through them rather readily, and, because of their 
soluble character, they are likely to develop underground passages 
through which much water may run to waste. Crops will germinate 
in gypseous soil, but the general experience seems to be that they 
do not thrive after they are up — a condition which may, however, be 
due to the absence of plant food or to the abundance of alkali rather 
than to the properties of the gypsum itself. The gypseous soils prob- 
ably do not have the natural fertility of the adobe, and develop- 
ments should therefore be made with great caution on the areas 
underlain by them. Like the adobe, they are poor in nitrogenous 
matter. They generally contain some alkali, and in many places 
their alkali content is rather large. 

The region lying east and north of the Phillips Hills and also 
extending some distance south of these hills (PL I, in pocket) is 
underlain in general by gray loam soils that are more sandy and 
porous than the red adobe. They appear to be good soils of the 
desert type and will probably prove productive where they are ade- 
quately watered. Except very locally, these soils contain little or no 
alkali, but they contain considerable gypsum and calcium carbonate. 

In the southern part of the basin and in the adjacent area to the 
south, the soils range in texture from true loam, through all grades 
of sandy loam, to sand that is too nearly destitute of fine particles 
to be utilized for agriculture. Even where it is not sandy the loam 
is generally less heavy and clayed than the typical red adobe. South 
of the Jarilla Mountains and Cox windmills (PL I, in pocket), 
there is little gypsum, and, except locally, almost no alkali. Where 
they are not too sandy the soils of this southern area are no doubt 
fertile, and would yield well if watered. However, the caliche, or 
lime hardpan, is more developed here than in other parts of the 
basin, and because it lies near the surface it must be reckoned with 
in any agricultural undertaking. 

48731°— wsp 343 — 15 12 



178 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Over a large but indefinite area extending on both sides of the 
railroad from the Texas line to a point beyond the Jarilla Mountains 
the soil is in general very sandy, but throughout the area there are 
small, comparatively level tracts of good soil. 

The east boundary of the sand-dune area north of the white 
sands (PL II, in pocket) is definite, but the west boundary is very 
indefinite. Most of this area contains clean quartz sand, or, in the 
southern part, quartz sand mixed with gypsum sand, but there are 
certain small tracts of arable land. 

RELATION OF SOILS TO DERIVATIVE ROCKS. 

The red adobe soils are derived from the red beds of the Penn- 
sylvanian series. They are not found in typical form in the area 
east and north of the Phillips Hills because the mountains that sup- 
ply debris to that area do not contain much Pennsylvanian rock, 
nor in the southern part of the basin where the Pennsylvanian rocks 
are either absent or do not include red beds. The crystalline rocks 
and Cretaceous sandstones produced soils that are more porous and 
sandy. The gypseous soils are derived from gypsum beds and dis- 
seminated gypsum in the Pennsylvanian rocks. 

RELATION OF SOILS TO CIRCULATION OF WATER. 

The great difference in solubility between the gypsum beds in the 
Pennsylvanian series and the materials of the red beds in the same 
series has produced a segregation which has given rise to the adobe 
and gypsum soils. The red sediments were carried in suspension by 
streams and flood waters and by waves and lake currents; the gyp- 
sum was in large part dissolved and accumulated in the ancient lake, 
on the bed of which it was deposited when the water became concen- 
trated. It is also deposited in low places by evaporating ground 
waters. 

The differences in the texture of the adobe and other loam soils 
found at different levels on the debris slopes are chiefly due to the 
sorting action of the streams and flood waters. The coarsest ma- 
terials were as a rule deposited first by the waters flowing from the 
mountains, and the finest particles were carried farthest into the 
interior. 

The existence of adobe soils overlying gypsum subsoils is for the 
most part due to the recent deposition of adobe by flood waters upon 
gypsum beds formed earlier by lake or wind. 

The gypseous and calcareous hardpans formed near the surface 
are probably the result of the slow work of rain and flood waters 
that seep into the soil and transport the gypsum and calcium car- 
bonate through a small vertical range. The alkalies in the soil are 
also the product of circulating waters. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 179 
RELATION OF SOILS TO DEPTH OF WATER TABLE. 

In the large shallow-water area shown in Plate II (in pocket), 
the belt in which the depth to the water table is 50 to 100 feet coin- 
cides most nearly with the zone of adobe soil. Most of the belt in 
which the depth to the water table is less than 50 feet, exclusive of 
the alkali flats and dune areas, is on the interior plain of gypseous 
soil, but it includes some good adobe soil near its outer margin and 
in the upper parts of the mid-slope arroyos. In the small shallow- 
water tracts east and north of the Phillips Hills the soil appears 
to be generally of satisfactory quality. Unfortunately much of the 
best soil lies in the southern part of the basin where the depth to 
water is several hundred feet and where underground supplies can 
therefore not be economically lifted for irrigation. 

PLANT FOODS IN THE SOIL. 

A few analyses made to determine the amount of nitrogen, potash, 
and phosphoric acid in the soil are reported in the table on page 180. 
The following statements are based on these analyses and on other 
investigations made by Dr. Hare. 

Nitrogen, which was determined by the Kjeldahl method modified 
to include nitrates, was found to be generally deficient, as was to be 
expected in a region where all forms of life are scarce, the deficiency 
being due to the arid climate and the overstocking of the range. 
The soils are in poor tilth and need deep cultivation, manuring, 
and the plowing in of green crops, preferably alfalfa, in order that 
they may be " opened up " for the freer passage of air and water 
and the addition of the much needed nitrogen-bearing humus. 

The phosphoric acid shown by the analyses is that which is soluble 
in strong hydrochloric acid. The amount compares fairly well with 
that usually found in soils of average fertility. In view of the fact 
that the phosphorus may not all be in an available form, however, 
the use of phosphate fertilizers may be beneficial. 

The potash reported in the table is only that portion which is 
soluble in water and therefore serves as a plant food. The amounts 
differ greatly in the different samples. Though the soils of this 
basin probably contain enough potash for the needs of crops, it is 
remarkable how little they contain of this constituent as compared 
with their large content of soda and other soluble salts. 



180 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 
Potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen in soils of Tularosa Basin. 



Location. 



Per cent of total soil. 



Potash 
(K 2 0). 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 
(P2O5). 



Nitrogen 

(N). 



14 S., R. 8 E., sec. 13 

13 S., R. 9 E., sec. 32, 2 miles northwest of Lomitas ranch . 

13 S., R. 8 E.,sec. 2, 2 miles east of Chosa ranch 

13 S., R. 9E.,sec. 11, 1 mile east of Temporal 

13 S., R. 9 E., sec. 20, peach orchard of Al Gray 

12 S., R. 8 E.,sec. 10, 7 miles east of Three Rivers 

14 S., R. 9 E.,sec. 14, Votaw's peach orchard 

15S.,R. 9E.,sec. 13: 

Top scrapings 

First foot. 

T. 15 S., R. 9 E., sec. 13, one-half mile from above (first foot). 
T. 15 S R. 9 E., sec. — : 

Surface soil 

First foot 

First 6 inches 

T. 15S.,R. 9E.,sec. 14: 

First foot 

Second foot 

T. 15 S., R. 9 E., sec. — , 2 miles from above: 

Surface soil 

First foot 

Second foot 

15 S., R. 9 E., sec. — , near above, surface soil 



0.32 



T 



.10 
.15 
.145 

Trace. 
Trace. 
Trace. 

.36 

Trace. 

.135 
.42 
.37 
.05 



0.28 
.29 
.22 
.32 
.32 
.13 

.065 

.12 

.16 

.12 
.08 
.21 

.11 
.11 

.24 
.27 
.18 
.12 



0.11 
.06 
.05 

.112 

.098 
.063 

.077 
.035 
.077 

.028 
.014 

.196 
.147 
.077 
.08 



ALKALI IN THE SOIL. 



KINDS OF ALKALI. 



The readily soluble constituents of soils are commonly, though 
rather inaccurately, called alkalies. When present in small amounts 
these constituents are valuable plant foods and give fertility to the 
soil, but when present in large amounts they injure vegetation or 
may prevent its growth. The soluble constituents most commonly 
found in abundance are sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, mag- 
nesium sulphate, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium carbonate. So- 
dium chloride (common salt), sodium sulphate (glauber salt), and 
magnesium sulphate (epsom salt) are usually called white alkali, 
because they produce white crusts ; whereas sodium bicarbonate (bak- 
ing soda) and sodium carbonate (washing soda), although also white 
salts, are called black alkali, because they react on vegetable matter 
in such a manner as to produce a black or brown stain. The amount 
of alkali that cultivated plants can endure depends on the kind of 
alkali, the kind of plants, the kind of soil, the methods of cultiva- 
tion and irrigation, and other factors. Black alkali is more injurious 
to plants than white alkali, and among the common white alkalies 
sodium chloride is more injurious than sodium sulphate. Black 
alkali when present in sufficient quantity corrodes the bark where it 
concentrates near the surface, thus girdling the plants. It also in- 
jures the tilth of the soil. The other soluble salts do not corrode 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 181 

but if present in large quantities they also injure vegetation. In 
general crops do not thrive in soils having more than 0.05 to 0.20 per 
cent of sodium carbonate, 0.25 to 0.50 per cent of sodium chloride, or 
0.50 to 1.00 per cent of sodium sulphate. The amount of alkali pres- 
ent in a virgin soil is, however, of less importance than the conditions 
that determine whether the alkali will accumulate or disappear when 
the land is irrigated and cultivated. If the drainage is good and the 
soil is porous, the alkali, even though present in large quantities, can 
be readily disposed of by leaching it downward through the soil. 
If, on the other hand, the water table is raised by irrigation within 
capillary reach of the atmosphere, the upward-moving ground water 
will accumulate alkali near the surface, and soils that originally 
contained little alkali may become worthless. (See pp. 187-193.) 

Calcium sulphate (gypsum) and calcium carbonate (limestone) 
are much less soluble than the so-called alkalies, but where they are 
present in the soil they are to some extent dissolved by the soil waters. 
They are not known to be injurious in soluble form to plant 
life. Since calcium sulphate tends to react with sodium carbonate, 
producing calcium carbonate and sodium sulphate, a gypseous soil 
will not contain injurious amounts of ordinary black alkali. 

ALKALI ANALYSES. 

The table on pages 306-311 gives the analyses of the water-soluble 
constituents of 78 samples of soil taken at 35 critical points in the 
large shallow-water belt of Tularosa Basin, all samples being col- 
lected within the area where injurious amounts of alkali were sus- 
pected from the appearance of the soil or vegetation and therefore 
chiefly within the zone of gypseous soil. They were obtained in 
Tps. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19 S., Rs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 E., 
all located in Otero County except five in western Socorro County 
and one from western Dona Ana County. Except where the boring 
was stopped by hardpan or some other obstacle, samples were gen- 
erally taken of the soil to a depth of 5 feet, one analysis being made 
of the soil within 1 foot of the surface and another analysis of 
the soil below the depth of 1 foot. The analyses show the con- 
stituents of the soils that went into solution when the samples were 
leached with water. (See methods of analysis, p. 265.) 

SULPHATES. 

The analyses show large amounts of sulphates and only very small 
amounts of carbonates or bicarbonates. They also show large 
amounts of calcium — a constituent which is not abundant in the soil 



•— 



182 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

solutions of most regions. The sulphates are generally above 0.50 
per cent and range up to 2.45 per cent, not including the sample 
taken at Eddy's prospect (analysis A42, p. 310), which consists 
chiefly of sodium sulphate. The calcium content is generally over 
0.10 per cent and ranges up to 0.40 per cent, not including several 
special samples in which it is greater. There is generally less mag- 
nesium than calcium, but it ranges up to 0.87 per cent in ordinary 
samples and is also higher in the special samples. The samples were 
all taken from soils that are somewhat gypseous and most of them 
represent soils consisting in large part of gypsum. Obviously the 
greater part of the sulphates and nearly all of the calcium found 
in the solutions were derived from this gypsum. A part of the 
sulphates are derived from magnesium sulphate and sodium sulphate, 
but the computed amounts of sodium sulphate are generally not 
large, and many analyses show no excess of the sulphate radicle 
over what will combine with calcium and magnesium. Calcium 
sulphate was found in all of the soil samples. The computed quan- 
tities varied considerably, but exclusive of surface scrapings aver- 
aged 52.91 per cent of the total dissolved solids. In the samples in 
which the dissolved solids exceed 2 per cent the proportion of gyp- 
sum is, however, relatively small. 

The analyses do not, however, show the total amount of gypsum in 
the soil, but merely the amount that passed into solution when the 
standard methods of leaching were applied in the laboratory. In 
the sample taken from the subsoil at H. W. Schofield's dug well 
(analysis A37), for example, the total calcium sulphate was found to 
be 60 per cent, but the dissolved portion shown by the regular alkali 
(analysis A37), for example, the total calcium sulphate was found to 
the extent of only about 0.20 per cent, the additional 1 per cent hav- 
ing gone into solution because the solubility of gypsum is increased 
by the presence of sodium chloride and other sodium salts and also 
because the amount of water used in leaching was in excess of the 
amount of soil. 

The amounts of dissolved calcium sulphate as shown by the 
analyses are not an index to the total gypsum content, the amount of 
gypsum in nearly all samples being greater than the amount that 
could dissolve in the quantity of water used in leaching the sample. 
Since the dissolved calcium sulphate is probably harmless, the figure 
representing " total soluble solids " does not indicate so bad a soil 
as it would if all the dissolved substances were harmful, which is 
approximately true in many alkali soils. The analyses given in this 
paper emphasize the fact that the determination of total soluble 
solids, whether by electrolytic or gravimetric methods, does not fur- 
nish a reliable guide to conditions unless something is known of the 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 183 

character of the dissolved substances. In a gypseous soil the danger 
from alkali may not be so great as might be inferred from a de- 
termination of total solids alone. 

Moreover it has been demonstrated by Kearney and Cameron x that 
gypsum has an ameliorating effect on alkali salts. These investi- 
gators found this effect to be much more marked on sulphates of 
magnesium and sodium than on the corresponding chlorides. They 
showed that it raised the concentration limit of magnesium sulphate 
endurable by plants about 480 times, and of sodium sulphate more 
than 60 times. The fact that plants grow in Tularosa Basin in 
amounts of toxic salts that are usually considered beyond the limits 
of tolerance is evidence in support of these results. 

A theory advanced by O. Loew 2 in regard to the ratio of calcium 
and magnesium salts best suited to the growth of plants may also 
serve to explain the beneficial action of gypsum on these alkali salts, 
at least in so far as the magnesium salts are concerned. He believes 
that these two elements should exist in the soil in about the same 
ratio that they are utilized by the plants, which for most crops is 
about 1 of magnesium to 3 of calcium ; and when an excess of either 
is present it results in injury to the plant. The ratio of available 
calcium and magnesium in the soils of Tularosa Basin is about 1 to 
4, and certain plants, such as tobacco and grapes, that can utilize 
this excess of calcium should be well suited to these soils. 

CARBONATES. 

Since calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are nearly in- 
soluble in water and relatively only slightly soluble even in the 
presence of the carbon dioxide of the soil, the presence of a con- 
siderable amount of carbonates or bicarbonates in a soil solution is 
usually regarded as an indication of the presence of the more soluble 
sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate, which constitute the harm- 
ful black alkali. For the same reason the presence of a considerable 
amount of calcium in the soil solution may be regarded as an indi- 
cation of calcium sulphate or calcium chloride. Since sodium car- 
bonate and sodium bicarbonate act upon calcium sulphate and cal- 
cium chloride, precipitating the nearly insoluble calcium carbonate, 
all soil solutions are very poor either in calcium or in carbonates and 
bicarbonates, or else they are poor in all of these constituents. In 
other words, a black-alkali soil furnishes a solution that contains 
appreciable amounts of carbonates or bicarbonates but almost no 
calcium, whereas a white- alkali soil furnishes a solution that con- 
tains almost no carbonates or bicarbonates and may or may not con- 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Rept. 71, p. 55, 1902. 

2 Porto Rico Agr. Exper. Sta. Circ. 10, p. 6. 



184 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

tain much calcium. The analyses of soils in Tularosa Basin in- 
variably show only very small amounts of the carbonates or bicar- 
bonates, which proves that none of the soils examined contain much 
black alkali, in the sense in which the term is commonly used. 
Several of the tests showed slight amounts of sodium carbonate, but 
the quantities are so small that they are practically negligible. 

The carbonates shown by the analyses in no sense represent the 
total amount of calcareous material in the soil. The analysis of 
soluble constituents of the subsoil at H. W. Schofield's dug well 
(analysis A37, p. 310) shows only 0.01 per cent of carbonates, and 
hence not over 0.02 per cent of calcium carbonate, yet this subsoil 
was found to contain a total of 12.55 per cent of calcium carbonate. 
The dissolved calcium carbonate is not injurious, but, on the contrary, 
is known to have a beneficial effect on vegetation. 

CHLORIDES. 

Most of the chlorine found in soil solutions represents sodium 
chloride (common salt), which is the more harmful of the two prin- 
cipal white alkalies. A few analyses, however, showed an excess of 
chlorine over sodium, indicating the presence of magnesium chloride 
or calcium chloride. Where either of these salts was present ic 
could be detected by the deliquescent character of the soil or of the 
water residue. The presence of magnesium chloride was verified by 
heating the residue above 100° C. and noting the loss of chlorine. 
In Tularosa Basin sodium chloride is the most dangerous alkali and 
its amount probably furnishes the best guide to the character of 
the soil in regard to alkali. Of the ordinary soil samples that were 
analyzed, about one-fourth contained over 0.50 per cent of sodium 
chloride to the depth that the boring was made, and somewhat more 
than one-half contained over 0.25 per cent. Nearly one-fourth of 
the total dissolved solids consists of sodium chloride. 

SPECIAL TYPE OF BLACK ALKALI. 

In certain localities in Tularosa Basin the soil has a black or 
brown appearance resembling the black-alkali spots produced by 
sodium carbonate. The darkest soil from two of these localities was 
analyzed — one on the farm of Hill Bros, (analysis A 22) and one on 
the farm of H. W. Schofield (analysis A 36). Both samples were 
characterized by the great abundance of chlorides and the presence 
in quantity of nitrates. In both, magnesium chloride and calcium 
chloride were present in addition to large amounts of sodium chloride, 
these three salts together with the nitrates and gypsum forming 
practically the entire soluble content. A sample of very concentrated 
brown water from a pool in one of the arroyos (analysis, p. 300) 






SOIL AND VEGETATION IN KELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 185 

contained a large amount of sodium and chlorine, but was specially 
characterized by its great content of magnesium sulphate. The dark 
appearance is in part due to the moist condition of the soil produced 
by the calcium chloride and magnesium chloride, both of which have 
the property of attracting moisture, but in part it seems to be due to 
an actual stain, as is indicated by the brown color of the concentrated 
water sample. 

The alkali in Tularosa Basin is similar to that in the Pecos Valley, 
which has been investigated by the United States Bureau of Soils 
and in regard to which the following statements are made : 1 

In the Pecos Valley, N. Mex., it has been made very evident that the predomi- 
nating feature is the contact of waters carrying considerable quantities of 
sodium chloride with the gypsum found abundantly in the soil, the gypsum, 
in fact, being in some places the main component of the soil. The sodium 
chloride, being so much more soluble, will be taken up long before the gypsum 
is appreciably affected, and we are therefore justified in regarding this problem 
as the action of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride upon gypsum (CaS0 4 . 
2H 2 0) or the dihydrate of calcium sulphate. 

In aqueous solutions a reaction takes place between gypsum and sodium 
chloride, which may be represented thus, 

CaS0 4 +2NaCl^Na 2 S0 4 +CaCl 2 , 

part of the calcium and sulphions [sulphate radicle] of the sparingly soluble 
calcium sulphate being converted into calcium chloride and sodium sulphate, 
compounds much more soluble than gypsum. * * * In other words, the 
gypsum becomes more soluble on account of the presence of sodium chloride 
and the solution more concentrated with respect to the total salts dis- 
solved. * * * 

The calcium chloride which has been washed down into the subsoil accumu- 
lates there in certain places, and then on prolonged drought is sometimes 
brought to the surface in very large amounts in spots of limited area. On 
account of its well-known and very great property of deliquescence it keeps 
the surface where it has accumulated quite damp, even during periods of pro- 
tracted drought. This gives a darker appearance to the soil where the cal- 
cium chloride has accumulated than that of the surrounding drier areas where 
this salt has not accumulated, these darkened areas being locally known in the 
Pecos Valley as black alkali spots, although chemical examination shows them 
to be quite free from soluble carbonates. 

The interaction of calcium sulphate and sodium chloride is the predominating 
feature of the alkali in the Pecos Valley.. It is modified to some extent by 
the presence of other salts, as the salts of magnesium, for example; but the 
latter are always present in much smaller quantities than are the calcium and 
sodium salts. Soluble carbonates are almost entirely absent and merit no atten- 
tion in this area. As the Pecos area was the first of the gypsum-sodium chlo- 
ride type to receive extended investigation by this bureau, it has been pro- 
posed to classify areas in which the interaction of gypsum and sodium chloride 
is the predominating feature under the heading " Pecos type." 

1 Dorsey, C. W., Alkali soils of the United States : U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils Bull. 35, 
pp. 150-152, 1906. 



186 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 
RELATION OF ALKALI TO TYPES OF SOIL. 

The porous upland soils and the adobe soils at the higher levels 
were not examined, but are without doubt nearly free of alkali. In 
some localities on the lowlands, however, the adobe contains harm- 
ful amounts of alkali. Sample A 2 was taken on the west side of 
the younger lava bed where the soil is red in color and includes 
enough clay to be exceedingly miry. Yet this sample, to a depth of 
5 feet, contained 0.90 per cent of sodium chloride. Sample A 25, 
which was taken from soil consisting of adobe to a depth of 1J feet, 
contained 0.30 per cent of sodium chloride in the first foot; sample 
A 34, consisting of adobe, contained 0.22 per cent of sodium chloride 
in the upper 4 feet; sample A 31, which was taken from a soil con- 
sisting of reddish clay loam to a depth of 3 feet, contained 0.77 per 
cent of sodium chloride in the first foot and 0.54 per cent in the sec- 
ond and third feet; and sample A 41, consisting in the upper part of 
adobe, contained 0.69 per cent of sodium chloride in the first f got and 
0.58 per cent in the next 3 feet. 

ndfetn Chamisoandmesquite 



and chamiso 

~-r^ 

Adobe IA40 A39 



Mesquite ^^r~\&3$ Gypseous soil 
r-:--_ I* ->-Sjnk holes 



2,5 50 100 200 FEET 

i 1 1 i 



Figure 43. — Section across small arroyo showing relation of soil and vegetation to 
topography (NW. I sec. 3, T. 17 S., R. 9 E.). 

The sandy soils and dune sands are so porous that they have been 
leached wherever the percolating waters were free to circulate, but 
the depressions between the dunes contain some alkali. The sample 
at Black Lake, A 14, was taken from the floor on which the dunes rest 
and was found to contain 0.13 per cent of sodium chloride in the first 
foot and 0.40 per cent in the next 3 feet. The gypsum sands have 
also been leached to a certain extent, as is indicated by analysis A 28, 
which shows only a trace of sodium chloride and no sodium sulphate. 

In the samples taken on the typical gypseous plain, well above the 
water level, the sodium chloride, to the depth that the boring was 
made, ranges from hardly more than a trace to somewhat over 0.50 
per cent and averages about 0.25 per cent. The analyses of these 
samples show that a moderate amount of alkali is widely dissemi- 
nated through the gypseous soil. 

The alkali flats, the wet area adjacent to the south end of the 
younger lava bed, the lower parts of the mid-slope arroyos, and cer- 
tain other localities are excessively impregnated with alkali. Ex- 
amples of alkali spots on the general plain are furnished by analyses 
A 17 and A 35. (See pp. 306-311.) 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 187 

Figure 43 is instructive in showing a certain distribution of 
alkali with reference to soil and topography in a locality where the 
water table is too low to affect the distribution. Sample A38 was 
taken on the typical gypseous plain and is probably representa- 
tive of general conditions on that part of the plain. Sample A 40 
was taken in a depression or arroyo and is representative of the red 
loam or adobe commonly forming the soil of these low places. 
Sample A38 was found to contain a moderate amount of alkali 
whereas A 40 is nearly free of alkali, and this difference is probably 
rather typical of these two soils where they are found in this topo- 
graphic relation. Sample A 39 was taken from the gypseous soil 
at the margin of the depression and was found to contain more 
alkali than either of the others. It probably represents a local con- 
centration. , 

RELATION OF ALKALI TO THE WATER LEVEL. 

The alkalies in the soil are the soluble products of the weathering 
of the rocks from which the soil is derived. While the insoluble 
products, such as the grains of sand and clay, are carried in suspen- 
sion or rolled over the ground by surface waters, the soluble products 
go into solution, are carried as readily by the slow underground 
seepage as by the surface streams, and are not generally deposited 
until the water evaporates. 

The low shallow-water areas, where there are possibilities of recov- 
ering ground water for irrigation, are as a rule the areas in which 
evaporation has occurred in the past and is occurring at present, 
either from lakes or ponds or from returning ground waters. There- 
fore the problem of alkali is generally involved in projects for irri- 
gation with ground waters. 

The vertical distance through which ground water will rise by 
capillarity above the water table differs with the texture of the soil 
or other conditions, but at most points where observations were made 
it rises about 8 feet. Where the water table stands much more than 
8 feet below the surface and the ground water is not brought within 
reach of the atmosphere by capillary action, there is merely a wet 
zone of dormant capillary water above the water table, but where the 
water table stands within about 8 feet of the surface the zone of 
capillary water is brought within reach of the atmosphere, evapora- 
tion takes place, and an upward capillary current is produced. This 
current carries soluble solids to the surface where they are deposited 
when the water evaporates. The analyses plotted in figures 44 and 
45 represent as diverse conditions in regard to soil and topography 
as could be found within the area investigated for alkali, yet they 
show very plainly the effect of this capillary current. The samples 



188 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

derived from localities where the water table stood within 10 or 12 
feet of the surface at the time observations were made are, with few 
exceptions, much richer in alkali than those taken where the depth 
to the water table is greater. 

The recent experiments of C. H. Lee 1 showed that, so far as 
his investigations were carried, the rate of withdrawal of ground 
water by capillary action through a given soil under given conditions 
varies inversely with the depth, from the surface, where it is a maxi- 



<iC 






• X 












X 


• 1 

1 

1 












28 




x Soi 1 to depth of Ifoot 

• Soil to depth of boring, 
generally 5 feet 




i 

X 


•x»xx •><• 


1 

i 

• 

1 




24 
















1 












X • *x 


\ ' 








ti 

£ 




• X 


1 

1 








ater table in 

— ro 
<x> o 






X • 








X 


• 


* 1 

lo 


O 

CD 










i?L 








* 


X 


• X • 


l~ 


— 






o 
■♦j 

.c 
+J 

Q. | 2 
Q 

8 

4 




x» 


li. 

r 
i 


3 

ct' 










V 

• X ^ 

• 


\ r». 








< 


1 


\ ^ 




X 




• 




X 












• X 


• 


• 

X 


X 






• X 











5.00. 



6.00 



1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 

Soluble solids- per cent of total soil 

Figure 44. — Diagram showing relation of soluble solids (in soils analyzed) to depth of 

water table. 

mum, to the depth of capillary range, where it becomes zero. For 
example, if the capillary range is 8 feet and the evaporation amounts 
to 40 inches a year where the water table is at the surface, the 
evaporation will, under the same conditions, amount to about 35 
inches where the water table is 1 foot below the surface, 30 inches 
Avhere the water table is 2 feet below the surface, and so on, to 

1 Lee, C. II., An intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley, 
California : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294, p. 59, 1912. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION" IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 189 

8 feet, at which depth evaporation ceases. The analyses plotted in 
figures 44 and 45 were taken under conditions too diverse to form 
the basis for any general rule; but it is nevertheless noteworthy 
that they conform in general with the rule based on Lee's observa- 
tions, the average amounts of alkali within the capillary limits in- 
creasing gradually with decreasing depth of ground water. Al- 
though the broken right lines representing the general alkali limits 
are hardly required by the analyses plotted, they no doubt represent 
correctly the main relations of the distribution of alkali to the depth 
of ground water. They mean that wherever the water table is within 
about 12 feet of the surface the soil is liable to contain harmful 
amounts of alkali, and that the nearer the surface the ground water 
stands the greater is the danger from alkali. 

In all of the samples taken in localities where the depth to water is 
less than 10 feet the alkali content was greater in the first foot of 
soil than farther down, a fact which shows that in these localities 
the alkali has in recent times been accumulating, the effect of the 
upward capillary current being greater than any downward leach- 
ing by rains or floods. 

Although the alkali content is, as a rule, much greater where 
evaporation from ground water is taking place than elsewhere, yet 
the analyses show that sodium chloride and other alkalies are dis- 
tributed in appreciable quantities over much of that part of the in- 
terior gypseous plain where the water table is at present too low to 
have any influence on surface conditions. (See figs. 44 and 45.) 
Over most of this area alkali is evidently not accumulating at present, 
and the alkali that is disseminated through the surface formation is a 
product of conditions that have ceased to exist. It was probably 
deposited from the concentrated waters of the ancient lake or from 
evaporating ground waters in the lake epoch or soon after, when 
the water table stood considerably higher than it stands at present. 
This ancient alkali may be regarded as probably Pleistocene, in dis- 
tinction from the alkali in the wet places which is related to present 
processes and may be regarded as Recent. To some extent the Recent 
alkali accumulations represent an enrichment or reconcentration of 
more disseminated Pleistocene alkali. ' 

In only exceptional localities is the ancient alkali concentrated in 
the upper part of the soil. Generally where the depth to the water 
table is more than 12 feet the first foot of soil contains less than the 
rest of the boring. (See figs. 44 and 45.) The presence of this alkali 
above the water table seems to indicate that since its deposition, 
perhaps several thousand years ago, there has not been enough gen- 
eral downward percolation of water from rains and floods to leach 
out the alkali. The deficiency of alkali in the first foot as compared 



190 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

with the next 4 feet seems to furnish some measure of the amount of 
leaching just as the excess in the first foot of the wet areas gives 
some measure of the preponderance of accumulation over leaching. 
The gradual decrease of the average alkali content with increasing 
depth to water beyond the critical depth (figs. 44 and 45) is prob- 



Sodium chloride— per cent of total soil 
.50 1-00 1.50 2.00 



'2.50 



3.00 



2 




Figure 45. — Diagram showing relation of sodium chloride (in soils analyzed) to depth of 

water table. 

ably related to fluctuations in ancient water levels. However, in 
certain localities where the surface is far above the water table there 
are heavy accumulations of alkali which seem to require special 
explanations (for example, analyses A 35 and A 41). 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 191 
DISPOSAL OF ALKALI. 

Whether the alkali content of the soil decreases or increases when 
the land is irrigated and cultivated depends on the character of the 
soil and topography, the position of the water table, the methods 
of irrigation and cultivation, and the crops raised. Heavy irriga- 
tion will be effective in removing alkali under certain conditions, but 
will accumulate it under other conditions. If the soil is porous and 
heavy applications of water are made, the alkali will be leached 
downward out of the soil. But if the ground water is within 
capillary reach of the atmosphere the alkali will be drawn back as 
soon as the irrigation ceases and evaporation begins. Moreover, if 
the drainage conditions are not good and heavy applications of water 
are made, the water table will be raised through accretions to the 
ground water from the irrigation supplies, and land which in its 
natural state was not affected by the rise of ground water may, 
through the elevation of the water table and consequent upward move- 
ment of capillary water, become seriously impregnated with alkali. 
Light irrigation will not supply much ground water, and hence is 
not so likely as is heavy irrigation to cause the accumulation of 
alkali through capillary rise of the ground water. Moreover, if light 
irrigations are followed by careful cultivation, evaporation will to 
a great extent be prevented, and the alkali will be drawn up but 
slowly. Light irrigation will not, however, be effective in disposing 
of any alkali. 

In general, the best practice is to remove alkali by leaching it 
downward, and where the natural drainage is poor to construct 
drainage ditches through which the alkali-impregnated seepage 
waters can be permanently removed. In some places, however, arti- 
ficial drainage is not practicable either because of the expense in- 
volved or because no outlet can be found at a sufficiently low level. 
Downward leaching is also difficult where the soil is dense and 
impervious. 

Other methods of removing alkali are by washing or scraping it 
from the surface and by raising plants that take up alkali, these 
plants being removed from the land, when they are harvested in 
order to remove the alkali. 

Throughout most of the area in Tularosa Basin that has possi- 
bilities of irrigation from wells the ground water is not within 
capillary reach of the atmosphere. Since pumping will remove more 
water from the underground reservoir than it will return thereto, 
the water table will not be generally raised by this kind of irriga- 
tion, although it may be locally raised somewhat. But though with 
this kind of irrigation the alkali in the ground water will not com- 
monly be brought into the soil by capillary rise, it will be introduced 



192 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

through the pumping and irrigation process. Since much of the 
ground water is heavily mineralized, and since much of the soil is 
either of the impervious adobe type or already contains considerable 
alkali, there is danger of accumulating alkali by irrigating with 
ground water. 

Since pumped supplies must necessarily be sparingly used, and 
since much of the soil is relatively impervious, downward leaching 
with well waters will probably not be generally practicable. Spar- 
ing use of well waters and careful cultivation to prevent unnecessary 
evaporation will reduce alkali accumulation to a minimum. Where 
flood water can be led to an irrigated field it can be used as a correc- 
tive. By applying this water generously in times of freshets, as is 
often possible, the alkali can be leached downward through the more 
porous soil or possibly washed from the surface of the more imper- 
vious soil. 

If the wet lands in the lower courses of the arroyos are irrigated 
with well waters their alkali content, already generally great, will 
be increased by both the capillary rise and the irrigation application 
of the ground water. Moreover, these lands lie so low that they 
could not well be effectively drained by artificial ditches, and the 
occasional floods would make the maintenance of drainage ditches 
difficult and expensive. To some extent these wet lands may even- 
tually be utilized for agriculture • by raising alkali-resistant and 
alkali-removing crops, by improving every opportunity to wash 
away alkali through the agency of floods, and by using the other 
precautionary methods that have been mentioned. 

The wet land adjacent to the south end of the younger lava bed 
is of particular interest because of the large flow of water from 
Malpais Spring. This land lies at a sufficient elevation to be 
drained into either the small alkali flats 3 miles west of the spring 
or into Salt Creek, which is 5 miles west. The alkali flats could 
probably not dispose, of more than 1 to 2 second-feet of water by 
evaporation from their surfaces, and this rate of disposal would not 
be adequate for the drainage of all the land in question that could 
be irrigated with the spring water. Salt Creek could, of course, 
dispose of all the water that would drain into it by carrying this 
water southward to the much larger flat into which it discharges. 

A more feasible project and one that would involve less expense 
would be to lead the spring water through a ditch to the uplands 
adjacent to the flats or adjacent to the creek, where it could be 
used on soil containing less original alkali than the soil near the 
spring, and where a certain amount of drainage would occur natu- 
rally, where deeper drainage could be effected by means of shorter 
and less expensive ditches, and where only the water actually used 
would have to be disposed of. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 193 

In view, however, of the large amounts of alkali in the water of 
Malpais Spring (analysis, p. 300) and the inferior quality of soil in 
the region between this spring and Salt Creek, it is doubtful whether 
any reclamation project in this region would be wholly successful. 

ZONES OF NATIVE VEGETATION. 

Since the native plants are sensitive to differences in soil, moisture, 
and temperature, and since their distribution is controlled by the 
physical conditions constituting their environment, they form valu- 
able guides in any study relating to the water supplies and irrigation 
possibilities of a region. In any given zone of vegetation there are 
generally several kinds of native plants growing together, but some 
one of these is likely to predominate or to be characteristic of that 
zone. In some places the boundaries between the different zones are 
quite distinct ; in others they are very indefinite. 

The following zones and areas of native vegetation are recognized 
in Tularosa Basin: (1) The lower barren zone, (2) the zone of alkali 
vegetation, (3) the chamiso zone, (4) the mesquite zone, (5) the 
creosote zone, (6) the grass-covered areas, (7) the area of true sage- 
brush, (8) the yucca groves, (9) the zone of foothill vegetation, 
(10) the forest zone, (11) the upper barren zone, (12) the white 
sands and adjacent quartz sands, and (13) the malpais. 

The lower barren zone, which is destitute of vegetation, includes 
most of the area occupied by the alkali flats (PL II, in pocket), and 
covers approximately 150 square miles. 

The zone of alkali vegetation includes marginal parts of the alkali 
flats, the valley of Salt Creek and vicinity of Salt Spring, a consider- 
able area adjacent to the south end of the malpais, the lower parts 
of the mid-slope arroyos, and other small areas of alkali soil. Out- 
side of the alkali flats it probably does not cover a total of more 
than one township of land. In this zone salt grass and alkali-re- 
sistant bushes, such as burro weed (Allenrolfea occidentalis) , are 
dominant. 

In the chamiso zone the dominant type is a species of Atriplex, 
known by the Mexicans as " chamiso,". and often incorrectly called 
"sagebrush" by the English-speaking inhabitants of the region. 
This zone covers approximately 650 square miles and includes (1) 
most of the gypseous plain on the east side of the basin between the 
white sands and the mesquite zone (PI. II, in pocket), (2) a portion 
of the plain south of the white sands extending from these sands to 
an indefinite boundary some miles south, (3) the gypseous plain north 
of the white sands and southwest of the malpais, in the vicinity of 
Salt Creek and the northern alkali flats, and (4) a narrow belt prac- 
tically adjacent to the west margin of the large alkali flat. In some 

48731°— wsp 343—15 13 



194 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



places on the west side of the basin chamiso intervenes between the 
mesquite and creosote zones (fig. 46), but such a relation is excep- 
tional. Both the inner and outer boundaries of this zone are indefi- 
nite. The boundary between it and the zone of alkali vegetation is 
considered to pass through the localities where the chamiso and the 
alkali vegetation are equally abundant. Likewise the boundary be- 
tween this zone and the mesquite zone is considered to pass through 

the localities where cha- 
miso and mesquite are 
equally abundant. 

The mesquite zone oc- 
cupies the intermediate 
parts of the stream-built 
slopes and forms an ir- 
regular belt on each side 
of the valley (PL II, in 
pocket). Within the 
area covered by Plate II 
it occupies about 180 
square miles, five-sixths 
of which is on the east 
side of the basin, but on 
both sides it extends 
north and south of the 
area mapped. Its outer 
boundary is in most 
places formed by the cre- 
osote zone and is gener- 
ally more definite than 
the inner boundary, ad- 
jacent to the chamiso 
zone. 

The creosote zone oc- 
cupies a large part of the 
gravelly upper portion 
of the stream-built slopes 
and covers a greater total area than the mesquite zone. It is charac- 
terized by the so-called creosote bush, sometimes incorrectly called 
grease wood, but also contains a number of other desert bushes. Its 
inner boundary is generally rather definite. In most places it is adja- 
cent to the mesquite zone but in some localities where mesquite is 
absent, as in an area between Tularosa and Temporal and in the 
vicinity of the Henderson ranch, it touches the chamiso zone, and in 
other localities it touches the grass-covered areas. Its upper bound- 
ary is either indefinite or coincides with the edge of the mountains. 




APPROXIMATE SCALE 
12 3 4- 



5 MILES 



Figure 46. — Map of a part of the west slope of Tula- 
rosa Basin, showing zones of vegetation. Numbers 
indicate depth to water table, in feet. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 195 

Small tracts of creosote bush are also found in the interior of the 
basin. 

Grass with only small amounts t)f brush covers most of the area 
east and north of the lava beds and most of the southwestern part of 
the plain south of the white sands. It is also dominant over parts 
of the stream-built slopes in other localities, especially on the west 
side of the basin, as in the area shown in figure 46. 

True sagebrush is absent, or very rare, except in the southeastern 
part of the basin, where a species of Artemisia different from species 
prevalent in the Northwest (probably Artemisia fill folia) forms the 
dominant vegetation over large areas. This sagebrush is found 
along the railroad, with certain interruptions, from some distance 
north of Turquoise station nearly to Hueco station. 

Yucca is widely distributed, but does not constitute the dominant 
vegetation except in some localities in the southern part of the basin, 
where it occurs on the upper slopes in association with a number of 
desert bushes, and on the lowland plain in association with sage- 
brush, grass, mesquite, and chamiso. It is especially abundant along 
the railroad on both sides of Hueco. 

The isolated hills, the low ranges, and the lower parts of the high 
ranges support a scattered growth of various desert bushes, such as 
creosote bush, ocatilla, century plant, Spanish bayonet, and yucca, 
and in some places small cedars or junipers. At greater altitudes the 
high ranges, especially those on the east side, support forests of large 
trees containing much valuable lumber. At Cloudcroft, 8,000 to 
9,000 feet above sea level, there are yellow and other pines, spruce 
trees, maples, black locusts, quaking asps, and scrub oaks. Smaller 
pines, cedars, and large mountain junipers are abundant at the hori- 
zon of High Rolls, 6,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level. Small conifers 
are scattered over many parts of the northern plain and Mesa Ju- 
manes and form ribbons of timber along some of the Cretaceous es- 
carpments. Small trees also cover the east-facing scarp of the Chu- 
padera Plateau. Sierra Blanca Peak, the culminating point of the 
rim of Tularosa Basin, 12,003 feet above sea level, is above the timber 
line and represents the upper barren zone. 

The white sands and adjacent quarts sands and the younger lava 
bed may be regarded as special areas in so far as vegetation is con- 
cerned. Both support a scattered growth of desert vegetation, their 
floras being composed of various plants commonly found in this 
region. On the white sands chamiso, mesquite, sagebrush, yucca, and 
various grasses are common, and a few stunted cottonwood trees 
are found. The southern part of the malpais supports mesquite, 
chamiso, and other bushes that grow in the dust-filled crevices of the 
rock; the northern part, including the area within about 10 miles of 
the north end, supports these bushes and also a large number of 



196 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

small but sturdy conifers, chiefly cedars. The cedars are most abun- 
dant near the north end and gradually disappear southward. 

RELATION OF VEGETATION TO SOIL. 

The positions of the different zones of vegetation are determined 
by differences in soil, water supply, and temperature. Since all three 
of these factors everywhere exert an influence but are of very differ- 
ent relative importance in different localities, it is difficult to give 
proper value to the influence of each. 

The mesquite and grass zones comprise the largest proportion of 
satisfactory soil, although some of the soil within these zones is not 
good and much fertile soil lies outside of them. The mesquite zone 
occupies an intermediate topographic position and does not generally 
extend up to soil that is too gravelly or bowldery for agriculture nor 
far into the interior where gypseous and alkali-impregnated soils 
prevail. Mesquite is, however, found in some places on gravelly 
soils and in many places on soil that is undesirably gypseous. It 
also extends down the arroyos to localities having dangerous amounts 
of alkali. 

Chamiso is associated with the gypseous soil of the interior plain. 
This plant can endure the moderate amounts of alkali found in soil 
of this type, and it appears to be especially adapted to the gypsum 
areas, but it does not thrive in the strongly alkaline tracts. It is 
to be regarded as a warning of excessive gypsum rather than of 
excessive alkali. 

Salt grass and the succulent alkali bushes are distinct warnings of 
alkali. Where they are dominant the soil certainly contains much 
alkali, and where they are found in association with chamiso, 
mesquite, or other plants they indicate an appreciable and perhaps 
an injurious amount of alkali. The absence of vegetation over most 
of the area covered by alkali flats seems to indicate that the soil of 
these flats contains too much alkali for even the most alkali-resistant 
plants. 

The diagrams in figures 47 and 48 show the range of alkali in the 
different zones of vegetation, in so far as they are indicated by the 
analyses that were made. The actual range is no doubt greater for 
each zone. It should be noted that the diagrams do not indicate the 
amounts of alkali that can be endured by the different plants, but 
the amounts in which the different plants can exist as the dominant 
vegetation. 

The creosote zone extends over the upper parts of the stream-built 
slopes where the soil is gravelly and full of bowlders, but it also 
includes much good soil. Most of the soil at present under irriga- 
tion lies within this zone. 






SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 197 



The true sagebrush is definitely related to the sandy soil, its occur- 
rence being nearly coextensive with the southern sand-covered area. 
A little scattered sagebrush is also found in the white sands. 



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RELATION OF VEGETATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 

The distribution of zones of vegetation is influenced by the 
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water. 



198 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOUBCES OP TULAKOSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The most obvious effects of the distribution of rainfall are (1) the 
desert types of the vegetation throughout most of the basin and 
(2) the forests in the high mountains. At Cloudcroft, where the 
average annual rainfall is 22 inches, large trees are abundant; at 
Alamogordo, where it is less than 11 inches, desert plants prevail. 
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intermediate amount of rainfall, and consequently only a scattered 
growth of small trees. The trees and grass in the northern part 
of the basin are probably in part due to the somewhat greater rain- 
fall and less evaporation there than in the central and southern 
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Figure 48. — Diagrams showing range of dominant vegetation with regard to sodium 

chloride in soils analyzed. 

The arrangement of the principal zones of vegetation around the 
interior of the basin results largely from differences in soil, but 
partly from differences in water supply. The alkali plants in the 
wet areas utilize ground water, and it is possible that mesquite 
and chamiso also to some extent tap the underground supply. How- 
ever, the maps (PI. II, in pocket, and fig. 46) show that no very 
close relation exists between the boundaries of the mesquite and 
chamiso zones and the depths to water. The zones of vegetation 
do not maintain uniform widths, but are alternately wide and nar- 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 199 

row. The sinuosities of their boundaries do not correspond in gen- 
eral to sinuosities of either surface contours or water-table contours, 
but are manifestly related to the mouths of the principal canyons. 
Since both the coarseness of the soil and the flood-water supply are 
also related to the mouths of the canyons, it is difficult to estimate to 
what extent each of these two controls the sinuosities. 

The zones also show somewhat different relations on the opposite 
sides of the basin. On the west side both mesquite and creosote 
zones expand opposite the mouths of large canyons and contract* or 
entirely disappear in the interstream localities. Opposite the mouths 
of canyons these two zones abut against each other, but in the inter- 
stream localities chamiso and grass occupy the areas not covered by 
mesquite or creosote. The dilations of the mesquite zone can be 
pretty confidently ascribed to the better water supply opposite the 
canyons ; those of the creosote zone may be due largely to differences 
in the coarseness of the soil. 

All of the zones are much wider on the east than on the west side 
because the streams on the east side are larger and have built broader 
and more gentle slopes. The mesquite zone is less interrupted and 
hugs the creosote zone more closely on the east side, probably because 
the flood-water supply is more abundant. As on the west side, it 
shows a tendency to widen in the areas opposite the mouths of large 
canyons, but such widening is to a great extent prevented through 
the down crowding of the creosote zone in these localities and through 
the withdrawal of flood waters by the mid-slope arroyos. 

RELATION OF VEGETATION TO TEMPERATURE. 

The existence of forests in the high mountains is due to the 
abundance of rain in those regions, but the vertical distribution of 
the different kinds of trees is due largely to decreasing temperature 
with increasing altitude (fig. 2, p. 14) , as is shown by the fact that 
the kinds of trees found at higher altitudes correspond in a general 
way to the kinds found at higher latitudes. The upper barren zone 
is also a result of temperature control. 

The differences in vegetation that can be observed in passing from 
the north to the south end of the basin* are due in part to difference in 
rainfall and in part to differences in temperature. The latter are due 
to differences in both latitude and altitude. The greater abundance 
of yucca and cacti in the southern than in the northern part of the 
basin can be ascribed chiefly to differences in temperature. 

DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS AND VEGETATION IN THE SHALLOW- 
WATER BELT. 

The following detailed data on the distribution of soils and native 
vegetation within the area of shallow ground water are given because 
of their bearing on the problem of irrigation with well waters : 



— 



200 GEOLOGY AJtfD WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

T. 10 S., Rs. 6 and 7 E.—The southeastern part of T. 10 S., R. 7 E., 
is covered with lava, and the northwestern part of T. 10 S., R. 6 E., 
is occupied by gravelly upland. A nearly level plain several miles 
wide runs parallel to the edge of the lava and is covered with loamy 
soil that apparently does not contain a great amount of alkali. The 
dominant vegetation is creosote bush. 

T. 11 $., R. 6 E. — Along the east margin and near the southeast 
corner of the township there is low alkali land. Most of the rest of 
the township is occupied with mountains and a steep gravelly slope, 
but a narrow belt of better soil lies between the steep slope and the 
alkali land. 

T. 11 #., R. 7 E. — The southeastern part of the township is cov- 
ered with lava. The rest is a low nearly level plain, with reddish 
or brownish soil and pale gypseous subsoil. The amount of alkali 
apparently increases toward the south. (See analyses A 1 and A 2.) 
The vegetation is chiefly chamiso and grass. Some creosote bush 
grows in the northern part, and the succulent alkali bushes (Allen- 
rolfea occidentalis) are found in the southern part. 

T. 11 £., R. 8 E. — Most of the township is covered with lava, but 
the southeastern part consists of a gently sloping plain. The subsoil, 
which is gypseous and contains a small amount of alkali, is over- 
lain, especially near the lava, by recently deposited reddish or brown- 
ish loam that is practically free of allaili. (See analysis A3.) The 
vegetation consists of large but scattered mesquite, together with 
chamiso and grass. 

T. 11 £., R. 9 E. — The northeastern part of the township is largely 
rocky and the soil throughout is rather gravelly. The southwestern 
part is a gently inclined, grass-covered plain. 

T. 12 #., R. 5 E. — Most of the township is occupied by mountains 
and a steep gravelly slope, but the southeastern part is a gently 
inclined plain ranging from gravelly to gypseous loam. At the Jack- 
son ranch the soil is somewhat sandy and gravelly, but apparently of 
satisfactory quality. Mesquite predominates for some distance 
northwest of this ranch, and chamiso between the ranch and Salt 
Creek. 

T. 12 #., R. 6 E. — The soil of the northeastern part of the town- 
ship contains much alkali and has an alkali vegetation. Alkali is 
also abundant along Salt Creek (analysis A 5). Much of the cen- 
tral and southern parts of the township lies considerably above Salt 
Creek and has soil that is gypseous, but does not contain excessive 
quantities of alkali (analysis A 4). It supports creosote bush, mes- 
quite, and chamiso. Similar soil is found on the west side of the 
creek, becoming less gypseous toward the northeast corner. The 
vegetation consists of chamiso near the creek and of chamiso and 
mesquite farther west. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 201 

T. 12 S., R. 7 E. — The lava bed projects into the northern part of 
the township. The western half of the township, where it is not 
covered by lava, consists of wet alkali land, over much of which suc- 
culent bushes and salt grass prevail (analyses A 6 and AT). The 
eastern half is chiefly covered with mesquite and contains less alkali. 
The southeast corner of the township is sandy. (See PI. II, in 
pocket. ) 

The flow from Malpais Spring can not be successfully used for irri- 
gation on the wet land near the lava unless that land is first drained. 
It could be led by gravity several miles southwest of the spring upon 
land that is gypseous, but contains less alkali and is considerably 
above the water table. (See p. 192.) 

T. 12 #., R. 8 E. — The northwestern corner of the township is 
covered with lava ; the southern and especially the southeastern part, 
comprising about one-half of the total area of the township, is 
sandy. (See PL II, in pocket.) Between the lava and sand there is 
a belt of loam soil 2 to 3 miles wide that is covered with mesquite and 
apparently does not contain injurious amounts of alkali. The soil 
of this belt is somewhat gravelly in the northeastern corner of the 
township and becomes more clayed toward the southwest. 

T. 12 #., R. 9 E. — The eastern part of the township comprises 
rather gravelly creosote-covered land that lies high above the main 
body of ground water. The western part is covered principally 
with mesquite and grass and lies nearer the water table. Most of 
"the western part contains fairly good loam soil, but in the southwest 
there is some sandy and possibly some alkali land. In the north- 
eastern part of the township, and in parts of the township next east, 
there are small bodies of ground water lying above the main body. 
These will probably afford a supply to shallow wells for irrigation 
on a small scale. 

T. IS S., R. 5 E. — The northwestern part of the township is occu- 
pied by a steep gravelly slope; the southeastern by a nearly level 
plain considerably above the valley of Salt Creek. This plain, which 
extends from the east side of the township to some distance beyond 
the Henderson ranch, is covered for the most part with chamiso, and 
has a gypseous soil. In some places the surface is slightly undulat- 
ing, and the depressions are filled with reddish clay soil. A belt of 
apparently good soil intervenes between the steep slope and the 
nearly level plain. In the southern part of the township this belt is 
largely covered with mesquite. (See PL II, in pocket, and fig. 42.) 

T. 13 £., R. 6 #.— The valley of Salt Creek and the depressed 
flat in the southwestern part of the township contain a large amount 
of alkali (analysis A 12). The rest of the township is a plain at a 
distinctly higher level and with soil that contains much gypsum, 
but not excessive amounts of alkali (analyses A 10 and A 11). The 



202 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

southern and eastern parts have irregularities due to wind work. 
The predominant vegetation outside of the alkali flat is chamiso. 

T. IS £., R. 7 E. — The soil throughout the township is gypseous 
or sandy. The sand hills increase in prominence toward the east. 

T. IS #., R. 8 E. — Sand hills cover about one-half of the town- 
ship, their eastern limit being shown on the map forming Plate II 
(in pocket). There are small tracts of nearly level loam soil within 
the sand-hill area, as at Black Lake ranch (analysis A 14). The 
eastern part of the township is a gypseous plain, most of which is 
covered with chamiso and contains only a moderate amount of alkali 
(analysis A 15). 

T, IS #., R. 9 E. — The eastern part of the township belongs to the 
high gravelly slope where the depth to water is great. Westward 
the soil becomes more clayey and then more gypseous. The soil on 
the southern part of the slope is of the red adobe type; north of 
Temporal it has a more ashy appearance. The shallowest water oc- 
curs in a belt passing through the Chosa, Gray, and Lomitas ranches. 
East of this belt the surface rises rather abruptly. The shallow- 
water belt locally contains injurious amounts of alkali (analysis 
A 17), but good crops of fruit have been grown at the Gray ranch 
and vegetables at the Lomitas ranch. This belt has the best pros- 
pects for artesian flows. The eastern part of the township is cov- 
ered with creosote bush, the northwestern with mesquite, and the 
southwestern with chamiso. 

T. H $., R. 5 E. — The best soil is in the western third of the town- 
ship, where mesquite is the dominant vegetation. The northwestern 
part is a gypseous plain covered with chamiso. The southeastern 
part is occupied largely by alkali flats and wind deposits. (See 
PL II, in pocket, and fig. 46, p. 194.) 

T. H #., R. 6 E. — An alkali flat and dune areas occupy most of the 
township. In the western part there is some level land but the soil 
is generally gypseous. 

T. H £., R. 7 E. — Most of the township is occupied by dunes of 
quartz and gypsum sands. 

T. H #., R. 8 E. — The w T estern half of the township is occupied by 
quartz and gypsum sands; the eastern half by a gypseous plain, most 
of which is covered by chamiso. The plain is dissected by one large 
arroyo. The gypseous soil generally contains only moderate amounts 
of alkali, but in some spots the alkali content is large and the soil 
shows dark stains. (See analyses A 21, A 22, and A 23.) 

T. H $., R. 9 E. — In general the eastern part of the township con- 
tains red adobe soil and the western part contains gypseous soil, the 
boundary between the two trending south-southeastward. The adobe 
increases in clay content toward the west but is not excessively 
gravelly along the east margin of the township except perhaps near 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 203 

the northeast corner. The arroyos and many irregular depressions 
in the gypseous plain are covered with red soil that is believed to be 
better for agriculture than the gypsum. The red soil areas diminish 
in importance toward the west side and especially toward the south- 
west corner of the township. A moderate amount of alkali occurs 
throughout most of the soil in the western part of the township 
(analyses A 25 and A 26). Somewhat greater amounts occur locally 
in the shallow-water belt passing through the Lomitas ranch and in 
the lower parts of the arroyos, but most of the soil of the arroyos in 
this township is probably not seriously impregnated with alkali. 

T. IS $., R. 5 E. — On the west side of the township there is a belt 
of loam soil covered with mesquite. Nearly all of the rest of the 
township is occupied by the large alkali flat. 

T. 15 $., R. 6 E. — The southwestern part of the township is oc- 
cupied by the large alkali flat, the rest chiefly by gypsum sands. 

T. IS $., R. 7 E. — Gypsum sands prevail throughout the township. 

T. 15 $., R. 8 E. — The western two-thirds or more of the township is 
covered by gypsum sands. (See PI. II, in pocket.) The eastern part, 
including about 10 square miles, is occupied by (1) the chamiso- 
covered gypseous plain, (2) the lower parts of several broad arroyos 
that dissect the plain, and (3) the conspicuous limestone ridge known 
as Cerrito Tularosa. The gypseous plain contains moderate amounts 
of alkali, as is shown by analyses A 23 and A 29. The arroyos, 
especially the northernmost one, have shallow water and more or 
less alkali near the surface. The soil of the bottom land at Shoe- 
maker's well supports alkali bushes and shows alkali. The analysis 
(A 20) reveals the fact that the upper foot of this soil is heavily 
charged with sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, and magnesium sul- 
phate, but that the next 5 feet contain only a moderate amount of 
magnesium sulphate, a small amount of sodium chloride, and prac- 
tically no sodium sulphate. It is reported that good vegetables have 
been grown in this soil. 

T. 15 $., R. 9 E. — The township comprises a gently sloping plain 
dissected in the northern part by broad mid-slope arroyos supplied 
from Tularosa Eiver basin, and in the southeastern corner by similar 
arroyos supplied from the Fresnal and La Luz drainage basins. The 
upland soil ranges from red loam on the east to ashy gypseous mate- 
rial on the west. Mesquite covers the eastern part but westward gives 
way gradually to chamiso. The soil near the east margin appears 
to contain little if any alkali ; the gypseous soil farther west contains 
moderate amounts of alkali (analysis A 29). In the northeastern 
part of this township and adjacent parts of the township next east 
conditions are favorable for irrigation with ground water in so far 
at least as soil and depth to water are concerned. The parts of the 
arroyos in which the depth to water is over 15 feet also present favor- 



204 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

able conditions, but the parts in which water is very near the surface 
are liable to contain undesirable amounts of alkali. 

T. 16 #., R. 4 E. — The western part of the township is mountain- 
ous, and east of the mountains there is a steep gravelly slope. The 
northeastern part of the township is occupied by the large alkali flat. 
Between the gravelly slope and the flat there is a narrow mesquite- 
covered belt of apparently good loam soil. 

T. 16 #., R. 5 E. — The large alkali flat occupies nearly the entire 
township. There is a very small area of fairly good land in the 
southwest corner. 

T. 16 #., Rs. 6 and 7 E. — White gypsum sands cover both town- 
ships. 

T. 16 #., R. 8 E. — The gypsum sands extend only into the western 
tier of sections. The rest of the township is included in the nearly 
level chamiso-covered plain of gypseous soil through which pass 
several broad arroyos supplied from the Fresnal and La Luz drain- 
age basins. The soil throughout practically the entire township is 
unsatisfactory. The upland soil contains undesirable amounts of 
gypsum ; the arroyo soil contains undesirable amounts of alkali. 

T. 16 $., R. 9 E. — In the northeast corner of the township the soil 
is a gravelly red loam. SoutliAvestward it changes gradually into less 
gravelly loam, then into dense clay loam, then into gypseous loam, 
and finally, near the southwest corner, into impure gypsum. Near 
the northeast corner, covering approximately the more or less 
gravelly soil, the dominant vegetation is creosote bush. Southwest 
of the creosote zone, covering about one-half of the township and 
coinciding in general with the red loam soil, the dominant vegeta- 
tion is mesquite. Farther southwest the mesquite very gradually be- 
comes more scattered and stunted, and chamiso becomes the dominant 
type, indicating gypseous soil. The floors of the arroyos are gener- 
ally covered with red loam, even where they pass through the region 
where the upland soil is gypseous. Alkali in moderate amounts is 
widely disseminated through much of the upland soil, except prob- 
ably in the northeastern part. (See analyses A 32 and A 34.) 

In the arroyos it occurs in undesirable amounts where the water 
table is near the surface but need not be feared where the depth to 
water is over 15 feet. (See analyses A 30, A 31, and A 33.) 

T. 16 #., R. 10 E. — Most of the township is occupied by mountains 
and the adjacent, steep, gravelly slope, but red loam soil that is not 
excessively gravelly is found near the west margin. The mesquite 
zone originally extended into the west-central part of the township, 
covering an area of 3 or 4 square miles. The dominant native vege- 
tation of the rest of the slope is creosote bush. 

T. 17 #., R. 4 E. — Most of the township is occupied by mountains 
and the steep gravelly slope that borders the mountains on the east. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLIES. 205 

Baird's ranch is on the gravelly slope. In the northeastern and 
east-central parts of the township there is a mesquite-covered belt 
of apparently good though rather sandy soil. 

T. 17 £., R. 5 E. — Most of the township is occupied by the large 
alkali flat, but west of the flat is a mesquite-covered belt of appar- 
ently good sandy or loamy soil. 

T. 17 #., R. 6 E. — The township is occupied by the alkali flat and 
gypsum sands. 

T. 17 /#., R. 7 E. — All of the township is covered with gypsum 
sands except about 5 square miles in the southeastern part, which also 
have a very gypseous soil. 

T. 17 #., R. 8 E. — Almost the entire township is occupied by a 
chamiso-covered plain with very gypseous and somewhat alkali-im- 
pregnated soil. There are one or more small alkali flats and a num- 
ber of small dunes of gj^pseous material. The white sands encroach 
on the township only in the northwest corner. The mid-slope ar- 
royos fade out in the northeastern part of the township. 

T, 17 $., R. 9 E. — Most of the township contains gypseous, cha- 
miso-covered soil, but red adobe occurs near the east margin and in 
numerous small arroyos and undrained depressions farther west. 
There are also intermediate soils of red clayey appearance but large 
content of gypsum. The mesquite zone is well developed near the 
east margin of the township but toward the west gives way gradually 
to chamiso. A moderate amount of alkali is widely disseminated 
(analyses A 37 and A 38), and in certain localities, even within 2 
miles or less of th6 east boundary, it occurs in objectionable quanti- 
ties (analyses A 35 and A 41) and may give the soil a dark stain 
(analyses A 35 and A 36). So far as investigated, the red soil in the 
arroyos and depressions contains less alkali than the adjacent gyp- 
seous soil. (Compare analyses A 38, A 39, and A 40.) 

T. 17 #., R. 10 E. — Most of the township is occupied by mountains 
and the adjacent, steep, gravelly slope, but red loam soil that is not 
excessively gravelly is found near the west margin. It is covered 
partly with mesquite and partly with creosote bush. (See PI. II, in 
pocket. ) 

T. 18 8., R. 5 E. — The central and- western parts of the township 
are covered with alkali and gypsum sands. Along the west margin 
the slope is steep and the soil gravelly. Between the steep slope and 
the flat there is a narrow strip of land that is not very gravelly and 
does not contain much alkali. Most of the area west of the flat is 
covered with mesquite. (See PL II, in pocket.) 

T. 18 #., R. 6 E. — The township is covered almost entirely with 
gypsum sands. 



206 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

T. 18 £., R. 7 E. — The northwestern half of the township is covered 
with gypsum sands; the southeastern half is occupied by a gently 
undulating plain of g}'pseous soil. 

T. 18 $., R, 8 E. — Most of the township contains gypseous soil 
but the amount of gypsum apparently decreases toward the south- 
east. Reddish quartz sand occurs in the southern part of the town- 
ship, especially in the vicinity of the buttes. 

T. 18 £., R. 9 E.— Most of the soil is gypseous, but the amount of 
gypsum decreases toward the east and also toward the south. Near 
the east margin of the township the soil is chiefly of the red adobe 
type and the dominant vegetation is mesquite. 

T. 18 $., R. 10 E. — The eastern part of the township is covered 
with mountains and an adjacent short, steep, gravelly slope. The 
western part is a gently sloping plain which lies within the mesquite 
zone and in which the soil is adobe. 

T . 19 $., R. 5 E. and farther south. — The southwestern part of the 
township is occupied by mountains and a steep gravelly slope; the 
northeastern part by an alkali flat and gypsum sands. In an inter- 
mediate position, not far from the alkali flat, there is a belt of good 
loam soil. 

A meadow of level grass land and loam soil, less than a mile in 
average width, extends southward from the southwest corner of this 
township, through 5 or 6 townships, to Coe's ranch. It is bordered 
on the west by a steep gravelly slope and on the east by an undulat- 
ing plain of wind-blown material that consists chiefly of gypsum to 
a point a short distance beyond Coe's two windmills (PI. I, in pocket) 
and of reddish quartz sand farther south. 

T. 19 $., R. 6 E. — Gypsum sand covers the northern part of the 
township and irregular deposits of gypsum and quartz sand occur 
over much of the remaining area. There are also many nearly 
level tracts of soil that do not contain much alkali (analysis A 43) 
although they may be somewhat gypseous or sandy. Chamiso is the 
dominant type of vegetation. 

T. 19 £., R. 7 E. — The township is occupied by a gentry undulating 
plain with loam soil that is generally gypseous in the northern part 
and more sandy in the southern part. 

IRRIGATION. 

STREAMS AND SPRINGS. 

Sources of supply. — According to the United States census report, 
G,346 acres were irrigated in Otero County in 1909 with water from 
springs and streams. This included nearly all of the irrigated land 
in Tularosa Basin and also some on the east slope of the Sacramento 
Mountains. The largest irrigation supply within this basin is fur- 



IRRIGATION. 207 

nished by Tularosa Kiver ; smaller supplies are furnished by La Luz 
Creek, Fresnal Creek, Alamo Canyon, and Three Rivers. Altogether 
only about 1 acre in 1,000 is under irrigation in Tularosa Basin. 

Tularosa River. — Most of the water of Tularosa River rises on the 
Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation, the three principal source^ 
being a group of springs about 4 miles above the agency, a group of 
springs in the main canyon about three-quarters of a mile above the 
agency, and a group of springs in the North Canyon about half a 
mile above the agency. (See PL III, in pocket.) Measurements 
made by H. F. Robinson, superintendent of irrigation, United States 
Indian Service, in 1906, when the water rights on the stream were 
adjudicated, showed that the normal flow passing Blazer's mill, 3 
miles above the west line of the reservation, was about 11 second- 
feet, and that the accretions of water below this point, derived chiefly 
from springs, was about 8 second-feet. According to Mr. Carrol], 
formerly superintendent of the agency, the flow has increased slightly 
since 1906. It appears that in 1905 about. 2,077 acres were irrigated 
with the Tularosa supply, of which 470 acres were on the Indian 
Reservation, 1,070 acres in the vicinity of Tularosa, and 537 acres 
along the stream between the reservation and the village. Since that 
time the acreage has been somewhat increased, and a part of the 
water formerly used farther upstream is now used at Tularosa. In 
1911 it was estimated that about 1,700 acres were under irrigation in 
the vicinity of Tularosa. In addition to the irrigation from the 
main stream, about 160 acres are irrigated with water in Nogal 
Canyon. 

At Tularosa the principal crop is alfalfa, which is in large part 
made into hay and shipped. Winter irrigation is practiced, and 
cattle are allowed to graze on some of the alfalfa fields until about 
March 1. Four crops are generally cut in a season. The land is 
irrigated 2 or 3 times for the first crop and usually only once for 
each of the later crops. The first crop is the heaviest and commonly 
yields 2 tons or more per acre. According to Mr. J. J. Sanders, a 
well-informed resident, a conservative estimate of the average yield 
for one year is 4J tons per acre. No definite information is available 
as to the duty of the water, but it is' believed that, exclusive of the 
winter water, this amount of alfalfa can be raised with 2 acre-feet, 
although, including wastage, more is commonly used. Alfalfa hay 
is estimated to be worth $7 to $8 per ton for feeding to stock, but 
nets more than $10 when shipped to other markets. Fruit is also 
grown to a considerable extent, but the industry has not yet been 
systematically developed. There seems to be no sufficient reason 
why, if adequate market facilities are acquired, the raising of fruit 
on a larger scale will not be profitable. 



s> 



208 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

La Luz and Fresnal creeks. — According to measurements made by 
James A. French, State engineer of New Mexico, the discharge be- 
tween March 1 and August 31, 1912, of all springs and seepages tribu- 
tary to La Luz Creek (PI. Ill, in pocket) amounted to 2,472 acre- 
feet, or an average of nearly 7 second-feet, and of all springs and 
seepages tributary to Fresnal Creek, to 1,973 acre-feet, or an aver- 
age of 5J second-feet. It was found that during this period, exclu- 
sive of floods, approximately 955 acre-feet were discharged by 
La Luz Creek and 1,050 acre-feet by Fresnal Creek, both measured 
immediately above their junction. The average normal discharge 
of the two streams was therefore about 5J second-feet. Most of the 
rest of the water was diverted and used for irrigation on ranches 
situated above the junction of these streams, but some was lost by 
percolation into the ground and by evaporation. 

The village of La Luz is entitled to 36 miner's inches, and the 
Alamogordo Improvement Co. to the rest of the water discharged 
by the two streams. The relative rights of the company and of the 
ranches along the streams was in litigation at the time this investi- 
gation was made. According to the measurements made by the 
State engineer, the water delivered between March 19 and August 
31, 1912, exclusive of floods, was 317 acre-feet to the La Luz com- 
munity ditch and 1,380 acre-feet, or an average of a little over 4 
second-feet, to the main ditch of the Alamogordo Improvement Co. 

According to the best information obtainable, nearly 160 acres 
are irrigated with water delivered to the La Luz community, and 
over twice this area is irrigated with the water of the Alamogordo 
Improvement Co. The latter is widely distributed, a part being 
used by the company and a part sold in small quantities to farmers 
and residents of Alamogordo. A part of the company's water is 
used east of La Luz but most of it is conveyed in a ditch to the 
vicinity of Alamogordo. 

The crops raised and the agricultural methods employed are 
largely the same as those at Tularosa. Alfalfa is the leading prod- 
uct and fruit is second in importance. At La Luz alfalfa is grown in 
the orchards. The yield and prices of alfalfa are about the same as 
at Tularosa. The fruit industry is capable of further development. 

Alamo Canyon. — The small water supply furnished by Alamo 
Canyon (PI. Ill, in pocket), southeast of Alamogordo, is owned by 
the Alamogordo Improvement Co. and is described on page 226. It 
is used primarily for domestic and industrial purposes, but the sur- 
plus water is used, according to the superintendent of the company, 
for the irrigation of about 140 acres south of Alamogordo. 

Three Rivers. — The water supply of Three Eivers is derived from 
n number of springs and seepages, the more important of which are 
shown in Plate VI (p. 26), and from small streams heading in the 



IRRIGATION. 209 

Sierra Blanca and fed by melting snow until early summer. The 
flow of the springs fluctuates annually, being greatest in May and 
June, and is also affected by periods of wet and dry years. The 
mountain streams are perennial, but, owing largely to increased 
evaporation, their waters do not generally reach the Three Rivers 
valley later than May. 

The total area under irrigation in this valley varies, according to 
Senator Fall, between about 900 and 1,200 acres, the acreage being 
greater in wet than in dry years. All of the irrigated land except 
about 240 acres is on the Tres Ritos ranch, owned by Senator Fall, 
where by careful use of the water the cultivated acreage has been 
increased in recent years. The principal products are alfalfa and 
apples and other fruit. 

Storage projects. — The construction of reservoirs to store surface 
waters until needed for irrigation has been considered for nearly all 
of the larger drainage areas on the west side of the Sacramento 
Mountains and the Sierra Blanca, including the Rinconada. This 
phase of the water-supply problem was not included in the present 
investigation. 

Isolated springs. — A small amount of irrigation is accomplished 
with isolated springs, such as Carrizozo Spring on the ranch of Gov. 
W. C. McDonald (sec. 26, T. 7 S., R. 10 E.), the infiltration ditch 
on the I Bar X ranch (sec. 30, T. 9 S., R. 10 E., and sec. 25, T. 9 S., 
R. 9 E.), the springs on the Lomitas ranch (SE. J sec. 4, T. 14 S., 
R. 9 E.), and the sink-hole spring on the SW. \ sec. 25, T. 14 S., 
R. 8 E. Attempts have been made to irrigate with the water of 
Malpais Spring, and with water drained by gravity from the sink- 
hole pool 1J miles southwest of the Cerrito Tularosa. Both projects 
were, however, abandoned, no doubt because of the excess of alkali 
in both water and soil. Irrigation with the water of Malpais Spring 
is discussed on page 192. 

FLOOD WATERS. 

The surface waters that result from heavy rains have been used to 
a considerable extent for irrigation by the settlers who have no other 
water rights and have produced some good results, especially in rais- 
ing quickly maturing crops, such as cane, Milo maize, and Kafir corn. 
The aggregate quantity of these flood waters is large, they are chiefly 
available during the crop-growing season, and they can be led with 
comparatively little difficulty upon some of the best soil in the region. 
The greatest obstacle to their successful use is their extremely erratic 
occurrence, on account of which destructive droughts often intervene 
between irrigations. 

48731'— wsp 343 — 15 14 



210 GEOLOGY AND WATER EESOUECES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Attempts made to store flood waters in shallow earth reservoirs 
on the gently sloping plains have not been very successful. Such 
reservoirs lose their water rapidly through percolation and evapora- 
tion, they tend to silt up, and their dams are likely to be washed out 
by heavy floods. Nevertheless they deserve further trial. They can 
be constructed, enlarged, and repaired without much expenditure of 
money by the farmers themselves at times when other work is not 
urgent. The danger of washouts can be partly overcome by build- 
ing the reservoirs at points as far removed as possible from the course 
of the flood waters, so that they are not filled by sheet floods drained 
directly into them, but by definite ditches which tap the flood waters 
and by means of which the supply can be regulated. The danger of 
washouts can also be reduced by building protective dams above the 
reservoirs for the purpose of diverting the surplus water, and by 
making large and substantial spillways. The loss by percolation is 
difficult to overcome, largely because of the checking that occurs when 
the reservoirs are dry, but storage during any long period is not con- 
templated. The reservoirs will be valuable if they hold a consider- 
able part of their water for two weeks or even a shorter time. Under- 
ground waters recovered through wells will, however, on the whole, 
form a more dependable and otherwise more satisfactory auxiliary 
supply than the flood waters stored in earth reservoirs. 

WELLS. 
DEVELOPMENTS. 

In 1911-12 a few small pumping plants had been installed in the 
region, some of which furnished water for the irrigation of small 
tracts of vegetables, forage crops, alfalfa, and fruit trees. The total 
acreage irrigated with well waters was inconsiderable, and, with a 
few exceptions, the product amounted to but little. Pumping for 
irrigation was still in an early experimental stage. In addition to 
the pumping plants listed in the following table there are various 
small projects in which the water is supplied by windmills. 



IRRIGATION. 



211 










- 



212 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



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IRRIGATION. 213 

IRRIGABLE AREAS. 

The principal conditions that determine the boundaries of the areas 
in which irrigation with well water is an economic consideration are 
(1) depth to the water table, (2) quantity of water available, (3) 
quality of the water, (4) quality of the soil, (5) topography and 
drainage, and (6) availability of flood waters or other supplementary 
supplies. Thus the upper parts of the stream-built slopes on both 
sides of the basin are excluded because of the great depth to water 
in these elevated positions and also partly because of the gravelly 
character of their soil; the extensive plains with rich soil in the 
northern and southern parts of the basin are excluded because of the 
great depth to water and to some extent also because of the meager- 
ness of the supplies ; the wet lands south of the younger lava bed and 
in the lower parts of the arroyos are probably excluded because of 
the alkali in their soil and because of the poor drainage; and the 
extensive gypseous plains in the interior of the basin are probably 
also to a great extent excluded because of the unsatisfactory char- 
acter of their soil. 

The cost of pumping increases with the depth to the water table. 
The maximum depth from which it is economically practicable to 
lift ground waters for irrigation depends on a number of associated 
physical conditions, on the methods of agriculture, on the kind of 
crops, and on the ability and thrift of the farmer. Where the condi- 
tions are otherwise such as to make pumping for irrigation prac- 
ticable, the lift does not generally become a limiting factor until the 
depth to the water table reaches about 50 feet ; on the other hand the 
cost of lifting water from depths exceeding 100 feet is generally 
prohibitive, except where it is to be used on especially valuable crops. 

The areas prospectively available for irrigation with well waters 
can be outlined as follows: (1) The shallow- water tracts in the 
Cretaceous area north of Three Rivers, including land adjacent to 
Nogal Arroyo and near Carrizozo and Oscuro and the surrounding 
country (PI. VI, p. 26) ; (2) the shallow- water tracts in the valleys 
of the Sierra Blanca and Sacramento Mountains and adjacent foot- 
hills, especially in the valley of Three* Rivers (PL VI) ; (3) a belt on 
the east side of the basin extending from the lower part of the 
younger lava bed to some distance south and southwest of Dog Can- 
yon, limited on the north, east, and south by the depth to water 
(PL II, in pocket), and on the west by the alkali and gypsum in the 
soil (pp. 176-206) ; and (4) a narrow belt on the west side of the 
basin extending from the vicinity of Mound Springs to the meadow 
south of the white sands, limited on the north, west, and south by 
the depth to water (PL II) and on the east by the alkali and gypsum 
in the soil. 



214 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

In the shallow- water tracts adjacent to Nogal Arroyo and in the 
neighborhood of Carrizozo and Oscuro the principal problems relate 
to the recovery of adequate quantities of water at costs that are not 
prohibitive. The soil is generally satisfactory and the drainage is 
as a rule good. Only locally, as in some of the shallow wells in the 
village of Carrizozo, is the water too highly mineralized to be used 
for irrigation, and even here satisfactory water can probably be ob- 
tained by drilling a short distance into the sandstone below the un- 
consolidated sediments. (See analyses, pp. 270-275.) As a rule large 
quantities can not be obtained, but in many places supplies can be 
developed that will be adequate for profitable irrigation if proper 
methods of agriculture are used. In some places such supplies can 
be obtained from the unconsolidated sediments resting on the bed- 
rock; in others it will be necessary to drill some distance into the 
rock in order to tap the Cretaceous sandstones. Deep wells will 
generally tap lower sandstones that will yield water, but the addi- 
tional supplies thus obtained will probably not warrant the cost of 
sinking these deep wells. The deeper Cretaceous waters contain 
some black alkali, but they are not likely to be injurious because this 
alkali will be neutralized by the gypsum in the soil. (See the sec- 
tion entitled " Water in Cretaceous rocks and overlying sediments," 
pp. 138-157, and the table of analyses, pp. 268-301.) 

In the valleys of the Sierra Blanca and the Sacramento Mountains 
the problem consists chiefly in finding the localities where shallow 
water exists and developing in them supplies adequate for irriga- 
tion. The water in these valleys is nearly everywhere good enough 
for irrigation, and satisfactory soil on which to use it can generally 
be found. Many of these elevated shallow-water tracts are well 
located for raising fruit. Most of the water occurs in the uncon- 
solidated sediments in localities where the character of the bedrock 
and the shape of the bedrock surface are such that the water does 
not readily drain away. Cretaceous shales and sandstones inter- 
spersed with eruptive rocks, such as underlie Three Rivers valley, 
are better adapted for holding shallow supplies than the Carbon- 
iferous limestones that largely underlie the valleys farther south. 
Where the unconsolidated rock waste is coarse and porous generous 
yields may be obtained. In general the supplies are largest and most 
dependable in the well-watered valleys, but supplies adequate for 
irrigation may also be found in valleys having no surface flow. 

In the belt on the east side of the basin between the younger lava 
bed and the region near Dog Canyon the problem is not only to ob- 
tain sufficiently large supplies but to get combinations of water and 
soil that are suitable for irrigation. The first problem is discussed 



IRRIGATION-. 215 

under the headings " Yield of wells " and " Methods of constructing 
wells" (pp. 110-122); the second, under "Quality of water" (pp. 
124-138), and in the section on soil and vegetation (pp. 176-199). 
The differences in the quantity of ground water in this belt are local 
and can not be foretold from surface indications. The yield of wells 
will depend largely on the care and skill that is used in their con- 
struction. The analyses show that the differences in the quality of 
the water are also local. Since different strata encountered in the 
same well may yield water differing widely in mineralization, the 
quality of the supply can to some extent be regulated by casing out 
the worst waters. In general, the most favorable areas are the parts 
of the shallow-water belt that have adobe or other loam soils and 
receive flood waters. These areas are largely but not exclusively cov- 
ered with mesquite. Some of the most promising tracts are the 
parts of the mid-slope arroyos in which the depth to water exceeds 
15 feet. The lower parts of the arroyos, where the depth to water is 
less, generally have alkali soil. The chamiso-covered gypseous plain 
that lies west of the belt of adobe soil affords less favorable condi- 
tions and should not be developed until irrigation has proved suc- 
cessful in the most favored areas. 

In the narrow belt on the west side of the basin, where the water 
is not too deep and the soil is not too poor for irrigation, the most 
serious problem relates to the quality of the water. Nearly all of 
the samples from that belt represent waters that are too highly 
mineralized for use in irrigation, but possibly water of somewhat 
better quality might be found by drilling to deeper strata. Unfor- 
tunately, south of the white sands, where the water is of satisfac- 
tory quality, the depth becomes too great for profitable pumping. 

PUMPING APPLIANCES AND POWER. 

The cost of pumping depends largely on the kind of pumps and 
power used, on the adjustments of the different parts to one another 
and to the wells that are pumped, on the condition in which the 
machinery is kept, and on the rate at which the pumps and engines 
are run. All these subjects are better understood by the mechanic 
than by the farmer, but the farmer who wishes to make a livelihood 
by irrigation with well waters must master them thoroughly by dili- 
gent study in so far as they relate to his own water supply. They 
are subjects of general application which can not be adequately dis- 
cussed in this paper, but on which much valuable information has 
been published in reports listed below, which are arranged in chrono- 
logic order. 



216 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Reports on pumping appliances published by the United States Geological 

Survey. 1 

Wilson, H. M., Pumping for irrigation : Water-Supply Paper 1, 1896. 

Murphy, E. C, Windmills for irrigation : Water-Supply Paper 8, 1897. 

Hood, O. P., New tests of certain pumps and water lifts used in irrigation: 
Water-Supply Paper 14, 189S. 

Perry, T. O., Experiments with windmills : Water-Supply Paper 20, 1899. 

Barbour, E. H., Wells and windmills in Nebraska: Water-Supply Paper 29, 
1S99. 

Murphy, E. C, The windmill ; its efficiency and economic use, Part I : Water- 
Supply Paper 41, 1901. 

Murphy, E. C, The windmill ; its efficiency and economic use, Part II : Water- 
Supply Paper 42, 1901. 

Slichter, C. S., Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground 
waters: Water-Supply Paper 140, 1905. 

Slichter, C. S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley : 
Water-Supply Paper 141, 1905. 

Slichter, C. S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas : Water- 
Supply Paper 153, 1906. 

Slichter, C. S., The underflow of the South Platte Valley : Water-Supply Paper 
184, 1906. 

Meinzer, O. E., Kelton, F. C, and Forbes, R. H., Geology and water resources 
of Sulphur Spring Valley, Arizona : Water-Supply Paper 320, 1913. Also pub- 
lished as a bulletin of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station. 

Reports on pumping appliances published by the United States Department of 

Agriculture. 

Mead, Elwood, The relation of irrigation to dry farming : Yearbook for 1905, 
pp. 423-438. 

Le Conte, J. N., and Tait, C. E., Mechanical tests of pumping plants in Cali- 
fornia : Bull. 181, 1907. 

Gregory, W. B., The selection and installation of machinery for small pump- 
ing plants: Cir. 101, 1910. 

Fuller, P. E., The use of windmills in irrigation in the semi-arid W T est: 
Farmers' Bull. 394, 1910. 

Reports on pumping appliances published by the New Mexico Agricultural 

Experiment Station. 

Vernon, J. J., and Lester, F. E., Pumping for irrigation from wells: Bull. 45, 
1903. 

Vernon, J. J., Lester F. E., and McLallen, H. C, Pumping for irrigation: 
Bull. 53, 1904. 

Vernon, J. J., Lovett, A. E., and Scott, J. M., The duty of well water and the 
cost and profit on irrigated crops in the Rio Grande Valley : Bull. 56, 1905. 

Fleming, B. P., Small irrigation pumping plants: Bull. 71, 1909. 

Fleming, B. P., and Stoneking, J. B., Tests of pumping plants in New Mexico, 
1908-1909: Bull. 73, 1909. 

Fleming, B. P., and Stoneking, J. B., Tests of centrifugal pumps: Bull. 77, 
3911. 



i Nob. 1, S, 14, 20, 20, 41, and 42 aro out of stock. Most of the rest are no longer 
available for free distribution but can be purchased from the Superintendent of Docu- 
ments, Governmenl Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 



IRRIGATION. 217 

Reports on pumping appliances published by the Arizona Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 

Smith, G. E. P., Ground-water supply and irrigation in the Rillito Valley: 
Bull. 64, 1910. 

Meinzer, O. E., Kelton, F. C, and Forbes, R. H., Geology and water resources 
of Sulphur Spring Valley, Arizona. (See above.) 

Books issued by private publishing houses and the catalogues of 
firms that manufacture pumping machinery and engines also contain 
much valuable information and advice on this subject. Most of the 
manufacturing firms have in their service engineers or expert me- 
chanics who will assist farmers in planning installations suited to 
their particular needs. 

In general, horizontal centrifugal pumps are best adapted for 
pumping water for irrigation. Vertical centrifugal pumps have an 
advantage where the water table is at a considerable distance below 
the surface or fluctuates greatly, but if these pumps are not carefully 
installed or are neglected they may develop great friction and conse- 
quently may have low efficiency. Deep-well cylinder pumps are used 
in a large proportion of the irrigation wells of this region. Their 
efficiency is rather high if they are kept in repair, but very low if 
their valves leak. They are better adapted for pumping small than 
large yields and are especially useful where a part or all of the water 
is pumped by windmills. Where they are operated by engines or 
electric motors they should be of the double-acting type. Air lifts 
are adapted for cleaning new wells with the purpose of obtaining 
larger yields, and they are convenient for lifting water under certain 
conditions, but their efficiency is too low to recommend them for 
irrigation use. 

Most of the pumping plants thus far installed in Tularosa Basin 
are operated by windmills, gasoline engines, or electric motors, but 
horsepowers and steam engines are also in use. 

A small but successful plant utilizing ground water was in opera- 
tion in 1911 on the farm of A. Gschwind, northeast of Oscuro, where, 
by very sparing use of the water and very careful cultivation, about 
5 acres of vegetables were grown by means of a supply pumped with 
a 12-foot steel windmill mounted on a 20-foot tower, the mill and 
tower together costing $80. The water level in the well is 70 feet 
below the surface. According to Mr. Gschwind the mill pumps about 
12 gallons a minute with considerable regularity until the middle 
of June, after which there is less wind. The water is stored in an 
earth reservoir. Another successful windmill plant is that of Joseph 
George, east of Carrizozo, where 3 acres of productive orchard and 
a vegetable patch are irrigated with water pumped from a depth of 
about 50 feet by means of a 10-foot windmill, which, in a strong, 
steady wind, lifts about 12 gallons a minute and fills a cement-lined 



218 GEOLOGY AND WATEK RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

reservoir of 50,000-gallons capacity in three or four days. The or- 
chard is generally given one or two irrigations per month. 

In experiments made by P. E. Fuller, of the Department of Agri- 
culture, 1 it was found that with a lift of 56 feet a 12-foot windmill 
would pump 1J gallons a minute when the velocity of the wind was 
miles per hour, 4^ gallons when the velocity was 8 miles, 8^ gallons 
when the velocity was 10 miles, 12 gallons when the velocity was 12 
miles, and 22 J gallons when the velocity was 18 miles. It was also 
found that in one and one-half months, with an average wind ve- 
locity of about 13 miles per hour and a lift of 56 feet, a 12-foot back- 
geared windmill pumped 1^ acre-feet, a 14-foot back-geared mill 
pumped a little over 2 acre-feet, and a 16-foot direct-stroke mill 
pumped about 2 J acre- feet. 

r Records were obtained by the Office of Experiment Stations, United 
States Department of Agriculture, in 1904 of the performance of 72 
windmills at Garden City, Kans. It was found that these windmills 
irrigated from one- fourth to 7 acres each, at a cost of 75 cents to $6 
per acre. The crops were worth $12 to $500 per acre, and included 
alfalfa, garden vegetables, fruit trees, sugar beets, corn, cane, and 
sweet potatoes. 2 

Windmills can be used to good advantage in connection with other 
power in small pumping plants or over wells of rather small yield. 
They should be allowed to run throughout the year, and the water 
that they pump outside of the crop-grow T ing season should be put 
into the ground and conserved by proper tillage. Where a windmill 
is used, a reservoir of some kind is required. 

Although horsepowers are probably not practicable for extensive 
use, they are worthy of consideration for supplemental irrigation in 
times of drought or as duplicate installations to be used in case of 
breakdowns in gasoline engines. 

Where no electric current is available, internal-combustion engines 
burning gasoline, naphtha, distillate, crude oil, or some other fuel are 
best adapted for providing irrigation water in moderate quantities. 
In 14 tests made by C. S. Slichter 3 in the Rio Grande valley with 
5 to 28 horsepower gasoline engines, where the cost of the gasoline 
ranged between 14 and 17 cents a gallon and the total lift between 24 
and 46 feet, the cost of fuel for pumping 1 acre-foot ranged between 
$1.04 and $5.80, and the total cost of pumping 1 acre-foot (including 
labor, interest on investment, and depreciation), according to the 
estimates, ranged between $2.21 and $13.20 per acre-foot. In these 
tests the fuel cost for each foot that an acre-foot of water was lifted 
ranged between 3J and 16J cents and averaged about 8 cents. 

1 T\ S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook for 1907. 
■ Idem, for 1905, p. 431. 

■Observations on the ground water of Rio Grande valley: U. S. Geol. Survey Water 
Supply Paper 141, 1905, pp. 34, 35. 



IRRIGATION. 219 

In the tests made in 1911 by F. C. Kelton, of the Arizona Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, of 20 pumping plants in Sulphur Spring 
Valley, Ariz., 1 the cost of the pumping plants, exclusive of wells 
and buildings, ranged from $40 to $104 per rated horsepower and 
averaged $66. The cost per useful horsepower averaged $290, but 
if an efficiency of 40 per cent were obtained (as there should be) 
the cost would be reduced to $165 per useful horsepower. The fuel 
cost per acre-foot of water pumped averaged $4.39, with distillate 
figured at 16J cents per gallon in the northern part of the valley 
and at 17^ cents in the southern part, an addition of 5 per cent being 
made to the fuel cost as an allowance for losses by leakage and evapo- 
ration. The fuel cost of lifting an acre-foot through a distance of 1 
foot ranged from 4.7 to 20.5 cents and averaged 11.2 cents. If the 
cost of lubricating oil is included the average is about 12 cents. 

The motors in use in 1911 were supplied with current from the 
electric plant of the Alamogordo Improvement Co. at Alamogordo, 
at rates ranging between 3^ and 5 cents per kilowatt-hour. At 
C. W. Morgan's pumping plant, west of Alamogordo, where the lift 
is probably between 60 and 75 feet, an electric motor is used. Pump- 
ing at the rate of about 40 gallons a minute required 1.7 kilowatts. 
At 3.7 cents per kilowatt-hour the cost of power was about $8.50 
per acre-foot of water, or between 11 and 14 cents for each foot 
that an acre-foot was lifted. 

Possible sources of comparatively inexpensive power in Tularosa 
Basin are the streams in the Sierra Blanca and Sacramento Moun- 
tains and the coal in the Cretaceous formations. The water powers 
were not investigated, but it seems probable that their development 
to a certain extent would be practicable if the power could be locally 
utilized. Some investigation has been made by the United States 
Geological Survey of the coal deposits in the Capitan 2 and White- 
oaks 3 fields. These deposits appear to be adequate to supply a 
power plant of large dimensions. A power plant could be installed 
near the coal fields or the coal could be shipped by rail from Capitan 
to plants situated along the main railroad and nearer the shallow- 
water tracts. Coal could also be obtained from Dawson at moderate 
cost. Water suitable for steam making could no doubt be obtained 
from the railroad supply at Carrizozo, from wells at Oscuro, or from 
the public supply at Alamogordo. The installation of power plants 
should, however, be deferred until a much larger supply of well 
water has been developed, and until the well water has been used 

^-Meinzer, O. E., Kelton, F. C, and Forbes, R. H., Geology and water resources of 
Sulphur Spring Valley, Ariz. : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 320, 1913. 

2 Campbell, M. R., Coal in the vicinity of Fort Stanton Reservation, Lincoln County, 
N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 316, pp. 431-434, 1907. 

3 Wegemann, Carroll H., Geology and coal resources of the Sierra Blanca coal field, 
New Mexico : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 541, pp. — , 1914. 



220 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN. N. MEX. 



long enough in practical agriculture or horticulture to demonstrate 
that the alkali of water and soil can be successfully handled and that 
irrigation with this supply is practicable under the conditions that 
exist in this basin. 

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION. 

In connection with small pumping plants it is desirable, if not 
necessaiw, to have at least small reservoirs. Cement-lined reservoirs 
are the most satisfactory, but earth reservoirs, which can be con- 
structed at almost no cost except the labor of the farmers, are gen- 
erally nearly water-tight if they are properly built and maintained 
and are not constructed of too porous soil. Adobe can be made 
water-tight, but gypsum may allow the water to escape. Reservoirs 
and ditches are likely to develop solution channels in soil that con- 
tains a considerable proportion of gypsum, even though it appears 
chwey, and they must therefore be watched carefully. Reservoirs 
should be well puddled and should not be allowed to become entirely 
dry lest cracks are formed which will provide outlets for the water. 
The following information and advice in regard to the construction 
of small earth reservoirs is given in a recent bulletin by P. E. Fuller : x 

A means of storing water * * * should be resorted to in every instance 
where the flow is less than 600 gallons per minute. The reason for recom- 
mending a reservoir for flows up to this amount is that, with small streams 
used direct from the pumps, the loss in conveyance in ditches is excessive and 
the loss in the application of the water to the land is. large, since a small stream 
will saturate a spot and a large amount of water will sink into the soil in this 
one place instead of spreading over a large area and moistening the surface. 
Further, much more labor is required to irrigate with a small stream than with 
a large one. * * * 

If possible, a site should be chosen where the natural surface of the ground 
which will become the bottom of the reservoir is above the land to be irrigated, 
and if the highest land to be irrigated is some distance from the reservoir the 
bottom should be enough higher than the land to give a slope of at least 6 feet to 
the mile from the reservoir to the land. 

All sod and vegetation should be removed from the site, as the decay of the 
roots will leave passage for seepage. In a circle midway between the outside 
iind inside bank line plow a trench 2 feet wide and 1 foot deep, removing this 
dirt to the outside of the bank ; fill in this trench with clay or with a clay and 
gravel mixture. After a part of the trench has been so filled add water, and 
thoroughly puddle so as to form a bond between the original walls of the 
trench and the material added; haul in additional clay material to this section 
of the trench until it x>rojects above the original ground surface at least a foot 
and is yet a soft mass; then proceed to build the banks, puddling and tamping 
the new fill so as to thoroughly bind with the core of clay material. Proceed 
with the embankment until the first course to a depth of 6 inches has been 
completed around the entire inclosure, then add a second course of the same 

1 Fuller, P. E., The use of windmills in irrigation in the semiarid West : U. S. Dept. 
Agr. Farmers' Bull. .".04, pp. 28-33, 1910. 



IRRIGATION. 221 

thickness around the entire wall, allowing the teams to walk upon the top of 
the banks a distance of at least 20 feet each time a scraper is dumped, for in 
this way each course is well tamped as the work progresses. It would be far 
better if each course could be thoroughly wet down so as to puddle it or better 
to tamp the embankment; and even better results would be obtained if the 
clay core could be carried up with the work to the top of the bank, though this 
is not an easy matter and is not imperative if the material used in construct- 
ing the banks is of a clayey nature. It is well to allow the banks to settle 
under several rains or snows before the reservoir is filled. 

The inside slope of the bank should be very gradual, so as to avoid erosion 
and cutting. The width of the top of the bank should be not less than 3 feet 
for a reservoir 4 feet deep, and 4 feet for one 5 feet deep. The slope of the 
outside of the embankment may be steeper, 1 to 1 if planted to grass, so as to 
avoid washing or cutting from rains. 

Haul into the bottom a lining of clay or clay mixture several inches in excess 
of the depth of soil removed, and after distributing it evenly pump into the 
reservoir sufficient water to form a thick muck or paste and thoroughly puddle 
by keeping cattle or sheep in the reservoir for a least a week, and better for 
30 days. Indeed, the entire success of the reservoir is dependent upon such 
puddling, and there can be no reason why, by placing a temporary fence around 
the inclosure, the cattle or sheep can not be fed and watered while so penned 
up for 30 days. It will, of course, be necessary to allow water to run into the 
reservoir in small quantities during the operation of puddling so as to maintain 
a soft puddle. After the work of puddling is completed the banks may be 
trimmed to line by shovel. 

The inlet and outlet pipe should be put in place while the banks are being con- 
structed, for in this manner a water-tight joint between the pipe and banks can 
be secured. 

The loss from evaporation in the reservoir can be reduced effectually by the 
planting of bush willows or some similar low-bush tree profusely around the top 
of the banks, thereby breaking the wind. The cutting of banks from wave motion 
can be eliminated entirely in an earthen reservoir by floating a boom of old rail- 
road ties or other timbers around the inner banks facing the direction of the pre- 
vailing wind, or, if desirable, around the entire reservoir. The ties should be 
held together at the ends by cleats securely nailed and the entire boom should 
be anchored in a line 3 feet from the banks. 

AGRICULTURAL METHODS. 

Agriculture depending wholly on rainfall has proved too un- 
certain to give promise of success, although quickly-maturing or 
drought-resistant crops have been raised in certain localities and in 
certain years with the moisture supplied by direct rainfall alone. 
Many crops that failed completely could have been matured by the 
aid of comparatively small amounts of irrigation water applied at 
the particular times when the damage by drought occurred. Agri- 
culture depending on rainfall supplemented by flood waters has 
been somewhat more successful, but is also uncertain because the 
floods, like the rains, are irregular. Moreover, this kind of agricul- 
ture is restricted by the quantity and areal distribution of the floods. 



222 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Because of the limitations in regard to both quantity and quality 
of the underground supply and because of the cost of pumping, it 
is doubtful whether heavy irrigation, such as is commonly practiced 
in the Rio Grande valley and other irrigation districts, will be 
feasible, except very locally, in Tularosa Basin; but the sparing 
use of well water to supplement rainfall and flood waters contains 
more promise and should be given a thorough trial. That a small 
amount of well water properly applied in supplemental irrigation 
in connection with careful methods of farming will add greatly to 
the yield of certain crops has been shown in results obtained by R. H. 
Forbes and R. W. Clothier on one of the experimental farms of the 
Arizona Agricultural Station, 1 and also by a number of thrifty 
settlers in various parts of the Southwest. The value of such sup- 
plemental irrigation has been demonstrated for forage and other 
field crops, for vegetables, and for fruit. 

The underground supply has the great advantage of being avail- 
able whenever it is needed, provided only that the pumping plant is 
kept in repair so that breakdowns will not occur at critical times. It 
is contended by many engineers that, because of the interest on the 
investment and because of the deterioration (which is frequently as- 
sumed to be a fixed amount per annum regardless of the length of 
time a plant is in use during the year) , a pumping plant in order to 
be profitable must be in operation a large part of the time. Although 
this contention has in general much merit, it is not necessarily ap- 
plicable to the particular conditions existing in Tularosa Basin. 
With proper care the deterioration of the engine and pump should 
be more nearly proportional to the actual period of operation than 
to the period of installation. Moreover, the interest on the invest- 
ment in a small plant is not a controlling factor. In times of drought 
a plant should be operated day and night at its full capacity. The 
extent to which pumping with gasoline engines or electric current 
outside of the crop-growing season will be profitable for the purpose 
of storing moisture in the soil can be determined only by experience, 
but pumping with windmills throughout the year for this purpose 
will no doubt be profitable. Stream waters that would otherwise be 
wasted can also be profitably applied to the soil outside of the crop- 
growing season and can be conserved by proper tillage. 

The two important needs in Tularosa Basin are (1) the careful and 
intelligent sinking of wells for the purpose of developing more 
numerous and larger irrigation supplies, and (2) the establishing 
of an experimental farm for the purpose of evolving a system of 
agriculture adapted to the conditions in this region. 

1 See Geology and water resources of Sulphur Spring Valley, Ariz. : U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 320, 1913. Also recent publications of Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta., 
Tucson, Ariz. 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 223 

RAILROAD AND PUBLIC SUPPLIES. 

GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

When the El Paso & Northeastern Railroad, which is now a part 
of the El Paso & Southwestern system, was built great difficulty 
was experienced in obtaining water that was fit to use in loco- 
motives. Much expensive deep drilling was done along the rail- 
road from El Paso to Tucumcari, but most of the wells extended into 
gypseous Carboniferous rocks or into sediments derived from these 
rocks, and yielded water of very poor quality. Good water was, 
however, obtained in wells at Fort Bliss and Newman from the val- 
ley fill of the southern area, and soft water satisfactory for boiler 
use although having some tendency to foam was obtained in wells at 
Oscuro from Cretaceous sandstones. For the other parts of the line 
the problem was eventually solved by constructing pipe lines at 
heavy cost to conduct pure mountain supplies to the railroad sta- 
tions. Thus the supply at Orogrande is derived from the Sacra- 
mento River, the supply at Alamogordo from Alamo Canyon, and 
the supplies at Carrizozo and stations farther north from Bonita 
Creek. The problem of railroad supplies and public supplies has 
been practically identical, and a solution of the one has involved the 
solution of the other. The Alamogordo and Bonita systems were 
constructed by the railroad company; the Sacramento system was 
constructed by a smelter company but is now owned by the railroad 
company. The installation of these systems is a great achievement 
and demonstrates the practicability of conveying small supplies over 
long stretches of desert country. 

As most of the people in the towns along the railroad use this 
water it is very important to protect the contributing drainage 
basins from pollution. Time was not available in the present inves- 
tigation to make a sanitary survey of these basins, but it appeared 
that the conditions were in general sanitary and that with proper 
precautions the basins can be adequately protected. The water 
will not produce typhoid fever unless it is contaminated with the 
specific germs of this disease. Such contamination is caused only 
by the liquid and solid discharges of human beings. Safety there- 
fore requires that no human discharges be deposited in any place 
where they could be washed into the water supply. The water may 
be clear and good to the taste and still contain deadly germs. A 
single case of typhoid fever in the mountains might produce an epi- 
demic in the towns where the water is used. Storage in reservoirs 
will lessen but not remove the danger of infection. 



224 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 





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BONITA PIPE-LINE SYSTEM. 

The Bonita pipe-line system, 
which was designed to deliver at 
•least 5 second- feet of water, is 
briefly described in the following 
quotations from a paper by J. L. 
Campbell : * 

After the most thorough practicable 
treatment the well waters were still so 
bad that they caused violent foaming, low 
steam pressure, hard scaling, rapid de- 
struction of boiler tubes, high coal and 
water consumption, extraordinary engine 
failures and repairs, small engine mile- 
age, low train tonnage, excessive over- 
time, and a demoralized train service. 

:|: * * * * 

The writer [Mr. Campbell] was di- 
rected to find, if possible, a supply of good 
water, and his efforts proved successful. 
The pure water now in use has eliminated 
the adverse conditions before mentioned ; 
has improved the esprit de corps of the 
train service; and, in a short time, the 
reduction in operating expenses will liqui- 
date the first cost of the new supply. 

This supply is taken from the South 
Fork of Bonita Creek, which flows down 
the eastern slope of White Mountain 
(Sierra Blanca). The watershed is a 
granite and porphyry formation, heavily 
timbered, and the stream is fed by snow 
and rain. This combination yields an 
excellent water, carrying on an average 
104 parts per million of incrusting and 16 
parts of nonincrusting solids. The North 
Fork of the creek carries 284 and 41 
parts, respectively. Below the junction 
of these forks the water contains 179 
parts of incrusting and 27 parts of non- 
incrusting solids; and a branch pipe line 
takes water from the creek during inter- 
vals in dry years when the daily flow of 
the South Fork is less than the consump- 
tion. 2 

1 Campbell, J. L., The water supply of the 
El Taso & Southwestern Railway from Carri- 
zozo to Santa Rosa, N. Mex. : Am. Soc. Civil 
Bng. Trans., vol. 70, pp. 164-189, Dec., 1910. 

2 In the original paper the dissolved solids 
are expressed in grains per gallon. 



RAILROAD AND PUBLIC SUPPLIES. 225 

* * * The water is taken to and along the railway in pipe lines. The 
system includes 116 miles of wood pipe, 19 miles of iron pipe, one 422,000,000- 
gallon storage reservoir, four 2,500,000-gallon service reservoirs, two pumping 
plants in duplicate, and accessories of valves, standpipes, etc. 

From a small concrete dam across the creek, at an elevation of 7,728 feet, 
the pipe line drops down the narrow valley eastward 51 miles to an elevation 
of 6,980 feet, where it turns abruptly north, rising in 1 mile to a table-land 
7,215 feet above sea level, across which it continues northward 5 miles to the 
storage reservoir, which is on the north edge of this elevated country. Here- 
after, this reservoir will be called the Nogal reservoir, from the old mining 
village of Nogal lying 11 miles to the north and 600 feet below it. From this 
reservoir, the line drops abruptly to the Carrizozo plain and crosses the latter 
northward to Coyote, at mile 156 on the railway, at an elevation of 5,810 feet, 
passing on the way 6 miles east of Carrizozo, to which a branch pipe runs, 
Carrizozo being 5,430 feet above sea level. There is a 2,500,000-gallon reservoir 
at Coyote and a similar one at Carrizozo. 

This describes the gravity section of the line which brings the water from the 
mountain stream to the railway. From Nogal reservoir to the latter the 
capacity of the pipe is equal to the future daily requirements ; from the source 
of supply to the reservoir the pipe has twice as great a capacity, thereby storing 
surplus water. This section is 32 miles long, with a 6-mile branch line. 

The second, or pumping section, extends eastward along the railway, rising 
from an elevation of 5,810 feet at Coyote to 6,750 feet on the Corona summit, 
which is the watershed line between the Rio Grande on the west and the Rio 
Pecos on the east. At Coyote a pumping station lifts the water to Luna Reser- 
voir and the pumps at mile 171, and the latter lift it to the reservoir on Corona 
summit at mile 1921. This section is 361 miles long. 

The third, or gravity section, extends from the reservoir on the Corona 
summit to the Rio Pecos at mile 272, dropping from an elevation of 6,750 to 
4,570 feet in 80 miles. The pipe line extends to Pastura, 581 miles from Corona, 
as shown in figure 49. 

Where the pipe line passes a water tank on the railway a 4-inch branch pipe 
is carried to the bottom of the tank and up to the top, where it is capped by 
an automatic valve. A gate valve is placed in the branch pipe at its junction 
with the pipe line. 

There are regulating, relief, check, blow-off, and air valves, air chambers, 
and open standpipes on the line too numerous to mention in detail. They are 
designed to keep the wood pipe full, regulate flow, prevent accumulation of 
pressure and water hammer, and remove sediment. 

* * * A study of the profile developed a system of hydraulic grades, pipe 
diameters, and open standpipes limiting the pressure to 130 pounds per square 
inch, except on 19 miles of the pump main between Coyote and Corona, where 
the estimated maximum pressure is 310 pounds. 

Investigation justified the assumption that wood pipe under a pressure of 
130 pounds would give satisfactory service for 25 years, on which basis it would 
be less expensive than cast iron, and therefore it was used. Cast iron was con- 
sidered preferable to steel for pressures not exceeding 310 pounds on account 
of its greater durability. 

* ****** 

Water is delivered to the Santa Fe's new transcontinental low-grade line 
which crosses the El Paso & Southwestern Railway at Vaughn and has a divi- 
sion point there. On its adjacent divisions the Santa Fe had the same trouble 
48731°— wsp 343—15 15 



226 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

with local waters which compelled the El Paso & Southwestern to find a better 
supply. The Bonita water is conducted to and used at points 160 miles from 
its origin on Bonita Creek. 

OSCURO SUPPLIES. 

The railroad supply at Oscuro is obtained from two deep wells 
that tap Cretaceous sandstones. (See fig. 33 and the chapter on 
water in the Cretaceous formations.) This water is soft but has a 
high sodium content. (See analyses, p. 276.) The domestic supplies 
are obtained from a few private wells. 

DOMESTIC SUPPLIES AT TULAROSA AND LA LUZ. 

The domestic supplies at Tularosa and La Luz are taken chiefly 
from the irrigation ditches. The water of Tularosa River is clear 
in its upper courses where it emerges from springs, but becomes 
roily before it reaches the village. A public supply could be obtained 
either by sinking wells or by constructing a gravity pipe line from 
one or more of several mountain springs. The latter project would 
probably be preferable because it would provide better water than 
could be obtained from wells, and the cost of maintenance would 
be less. 

SUPPLIES AT MESCALERO AGENCY AND CLOUDCROFT. 

The waterworks at the Indian agency is supplied from the large 
limestone springs that discharge into Tularosa River in that vicinity. 
The water is of good quality. (See analysis, p. 302.) The supply 
from these springs is also used to operate a small power plant. The 
supply at Cloudcroft is pumped from springs and is also low in 
dissolved solids. 

ALAMOGORDO SUPPLY. 

The public and railroad supplies at Alamogordo are obtained from 
several groups of springs in Alamo Canyon. The water is collected 
by a system of ditches and is allowed to flow through the rock can- 
yon. Thence it is conducted by gravity through an iron pipe, rang- 
ing in diameter from 18 to 10 inches, into two cement-lined reser- 
voirs on the debris slope in the NW. J sec. 33, T. 16 S., R. 10 E., 
about 2 miles southeast of the town. The capacity of the reservoirs 
is reported to be about 500,000 gallons each. The supply is carried 
in a 10-inch main from the reservoir to Alamogordo, where it is de- 
livered under a gravity pressure of about 100 to 130 pounds per 
square inch. The system was installed by the railroad company about 
the time the railroad was built but is now owned by the Alamogordo 



RAILROAD AND PUBLIC SUPPLIES. 227 

Improvement Co. The water is of good quality, as is shown by the 
analysis (p. 302). 

SACRAMENTO RIVER PIPE LINE. 

The general supplies for Orogrande and other mining settlements 
in the Jarilla Mountains, as well as the railroad supply at that point 
and the live-stock supply on one of the McNew ranches, are derived 
from a pipe line that taps the Sacramento River. The water is di- 
verted about sec. 10, T. 19 S., R. 12 E. (PL III, in pocket), below 
the lowest series of large springs. Thence it is led through a ditch, 
lOf miles long, to the Upper Juniper reservoir, which is reported to 
have a capacity of about 5,000,000 gallons, and thence a short dis- 
tance to the Lower Juniper reservoir, which is reported to have a 
capacity of about 7,500,000 gallons. From the lower reservoir the 
Avater is led by gravity through a 6-inch pipe, for a distance of nearly 
25 miles, to the Nannie Baird reservoir in the Jarilla Mountains, 
which has a capacity of 11,600,000 gallons. Thence it is distributed 
by gravity through a system of mains and service pipes. The alti- 
tudes along the line are about as follows : Upper Juniper reservoir, 
5,880 feet, Lower Juniper reservoir, 5,190 feet; lowest point on the 
plain, 4,000 feet; highest elevation in Jarilla Mountains, 4,455 feet; 
Nannie Baird reservoir, 4,400 feet. The gravity pressure in the dis- 
tributing system amounts to about 75 pounds per square inch at the 
smelter and about 125 pounds at the railroad tank. 

The conducting capacity of the pipe line is reported to be about 
445,000 gallons in 24 hours, or approximately 300 gallons a minute. 
The supply at the source is reported to fluctuate greatly, and the loss 
by seepage and evaporation in the reservoirs and open ditch are 
heavy. Mr. J. J. Murray, one of the engineers in charge, who made 
many careful observations, reported the following data: The ditch 
in the last 3 miles of its course loses in summer about 1,000,000 gal- 
lons a day, or fully 1^ second-feet. The leakage of the Upper 
Juniper reservoir reaches in large part the Lower Juniper reservoir, 
but the loss from the latter amounts to 500,000 gallons a day when 
the reservoir is full. The Nannie Baird reservoir Avhen nearly full 
loses 100,000 gallons a day, in large part by evaporation, the area of 
the reservoir being about 4 acres, and the maximum observed evapo- 
ration on hot, windy days about 0.7 inch. 

The system was constructed in 1906 by the Southwest Smelting & 
Refining Co. at a cost, including water rights, of $180,000. It was 
purchased by the railroad company in 1910. Prior to 1906 there was 
no supply in the Jarilla Mountains except the water hauled in by the 
railroad company. The present consumption, including supplies for 
locomotives and placer mining, is about 100,000 gallons per day. 



228 GEOLOGY AND WATEB RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Jn addition to this the McNew ranch is entitled to 15,000 gallons per 
day. 

The water contains only a small amount of dissolved mineral mat- 
ter. According to the analyses given in this paper (p. 302), it is very 
similar to the Bonita water and slightly less mineralized than that of 
the AJamogordo and El Paso supplies, but there is no doubt some 
variation in the mineral content of all the pipe-line supplies. 

EL PASO PUBLIC SUPPLY. 

The public supply for the city of El Paso, which in 1910 had a 
population of 39,279 and in 1912 several thousand more, is obtained 
from wells sunk into the valley fill underlying the upland north of 
the city, as is explained in the section on water in the valley fill 
(p. L15). The water is brought to the surface from a depth of 
about 200 feet by means of air lifts, and is collected in two small 
reservoirs at the pumping plant. Thence it is pumped into the sys- 
tem of mains, with which is connected a reservoir of 4,500,000 gal- 
lons capacity, situated at an altitude of about 3,900 feet. In 1912 
there were 78 miles of mains, 204 hydrants, and 6,200 service con- 
nections, of which 4,873 had meters. The capacity of the plant was 
about 0,000,000 gallons a day; the maximum consumption, 5,250,000 
gallons; and the average consumption, 4,000,000 gallons. The value 
of the entire system was estimated at $1,232,000, and the total cost 
of operation, exclusive of interest on investment or new r construction, 
was estimated at 11 cents per 1,000 gallons delivered. The prices 
charged ranged from 30 to 20 cents per 1,000 gallons where meters 
are installed. These data are of interest in view of the fact that 
the entire supply is obtained from deep wells with low-water level. 
As shown by the analysis (p. 305), the water contains only small 
amounts of dissolved mineral matter. The sanitary conditions are 
good. The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. 

WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAYEL. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Although a railroad now extends through the length of Tularosa 
Basin, there is still much travel by wagon between the settlements 
in this basin and those in the Pecos, Estancia, and Rio Grande val- 
leys. Travel over the desert is no longer attended with as much 
danger as it was in the early days, but the distances between satis- 
factory watering places are still inconveniently long, and in the dry 
seasons it is frequently necessary to carry water for parts of a trip. 
To the old ranchers and prospectors of the region, who are familiar 
with the roads, the landmarks, and the watering places, a journey 
across the desert seems simple enough, but to strangers who have 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OP TRAVEL. 229 

occasion to travel through the region and to the settlers who have but 
recently come to New Mexico and who are not familiar with the 
local geography, such a journey presents more difficulties. For their 
use the following detailed description of routes and watering places 
is given. In connection with these descriptions the maps in Plates 
I. II. Ill, and VI, and figures 50 and 51 should be consulted. 

ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 
RAILROAD STATIONS AND CONNECTING ROADS. 

Railroad connections. — The El Paso & Southwestern Railroad, by 
connecting with the Rock Island system east of Tucumcari and with 
the Southern Pacific west of Tucson, constitutes a part of one of the 
transcontinental routes over which pass each day several well- 
appointed trains, running between Chicago and Los Angeles. At 
Vaughn this railroad crosses the Belen cut-off of the Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe system ; at Torrance it is met by the New Mexico 
Central ; and at El Paso it connects with roads leading in various 
directions. 

Stations. — The three largest towns on this railroad within the 
Tularosa Basin are Carrizozo, which has 700 inhabitants; Tularosa, 
wliich has 600 inhabitants, and Alamogordo, which has 2,000 inhabi- 
tants. Each of these towns has hotel and livery accommodations 
and stores at which provisions and camping equipment can be bought. 
Corona is a small town between Ancho and Torrance, and post 
offices are also maintained at Tecolote (Eichel post office) and 
Gallinas (Holloway post office). Ancho is a settlement having stores 
and a post office. Pumping stations connected with the railroad 
pipe line are situated at Luna and Coyote, but there are no accommo- 
dations and no water supply for the public at these points. Jake's 
is a section house at which water can be obtained. Oscuro is a 
small settlement with stores and hotel accommodations. Three 
Rivers has a depot, a store, and a post office. Dog Canyon is a small 
settlement with a post office which is called Shamrock; Escondida, 
Turquoise, and Desert are switches at which section houses are located, 
and Newman is a switch at which a railroad pumping plant is main- 
tained. Robsart, Polly, North, Salinas, Kearney, Omlee, Elwood, 
Alvaredo, and Hueco are only switches where trains may pass, and 
have no inhabitants, no shelter, and no water supply. 

Wagon roads. — A well-graded county highway connects Alamo- 
gordo with Tularosa by way of La Luz. A road also leads south- 
ward from Alamogordo to Dog Canyon and thence along the rail- 
road to El Paso (p. 248). 

The best road from Tularosa to Three Rivers crosses the upland 
some distance east of the railroad (PI. II, in pocket). Turner's 



230 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

ranch, at which there is a drilled well, earth reservoir, and watering 
trough, is situated about 5 miles north of Tularosa and over one-half 
mile Avest of the main road. A road also leads from Tularosa to 
Three Rivers on the west side of the railroad. When the survey was 
made this lower road was rougher, less frequently traveled, and not 
more favored with respect to watering places than the upper, but 
since that time improvements have been made on it. 

The best road from Three Rivers to Oscuro starts on the east side 
of the railroad, but about 3J miles from the Three Rivers depot it 
crosses to the the west side and continues on the west side in the rest 
of its course to Oscuro. There are no watering places along this 
road. 

Two wagon roads connect Three Rivers with Carrizozo. One of 
these runs by way of Oscuro, Jake's, and Polly, and remains near 
the railroad. It has watering places at Oscuro and Jake's (p. 257) 
and at several homesteads between Polly and Carrizozo. The other 
road leads up the valley of Three Rivers for a distance of about 9 
miles and then turns northward on the east side of the Godfrey 
Hills, and passes the I bar X ranch. This road is somewhat rough, 
but has good watering places at the I Bar X ranch (p. 256) and at 
a number of springs and wells between that ranch and Three Rivers. 
(See Pis. I, in pocket, and VI, p. 26.) 

The wagon road most commonly used in going from Carrizozo to 
Ancho passes the Bar W ranch (p. 250) and then trends northeast- 
ward to the railroad, which it follows closely the rest of the way. 
The pumping plant at Coyote forms a convenient landmark for 
this route by reason of its conspicuous position and two high smoke- 
stacks. It is 12J miles from Carrizozo and 11 miles from Ancho. 
After leaving the Bar W ranch there is no reliable watering place 
until some distance beyond Coyote. Red Lake (p. 261) is about 3 
miles north and 3 miles west of Coyote, but is not conveniently 
reached from this road. About 6 miles north of Coyote and less 
than a mile west of the wagon road and railroad is the J. B. French 
ranch (p. 253) where a supply of satisfactory water can be obtained. 
A short distance farther north, on the east side of the railroad, is the 
Horace French ranch, where there is also a well and a supply of 
satisfactory water. (See analyses, p. 268.) 

Table of distances. — The following table gives the distances be- 
tween the principal stations on the main line of the railroad between 
El Paso and Torrance. For descriptions of watering places see 
pages 249-265. 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 
Distances in, miles between railroad stations. 



231 





d 

PM 


a 
1 


i 

o 
(-1 
O 


i 

o 

O 


d 

u 
o 
bfl 
o 

I 
3 


C3 
O 
1 


09 

h 

> 


© 

o 


o 
si 

o 

.a 

% 


6 

1 


1 

o 


d 

o 

1 
1 


El Paso 

Newman 

Orogrande 

Dog Canyon. . . 
Alamoe;ordo . . . 
Tularosa 

Three Rivers.. 

Oscuro 

Carrizozo 

Ancho 

Corona 

Torrance 



19 

48 

75 
86 
99 

116 
12S 
144 

167 
195 
203 


19 



29 

56 
67 
.80 

97 
109 
125 

148 
176 
184 


48 

29 



27 
38 
50 

68 
79 
95 

119 
146 
154 


75 
56 
27 


11 
25 

41 
52 
68 

92 
119 
127 


86 
67 
38 

11 



14 

30 
42 

58 

81 
109 
117 


99 
80 
50 

25 

14 



17 
29 
45 

68 

96 

104 


116 
97 
68 

41 
30 

17 



12 

28 

51 
79 

87 


128 

109 

79 

52 
42 
29 

12 



16 

29 

67 
75 


144 

125 

95 

68 
58 
45 

28 

16 



24 
51 
59 


167 
148 
119 

92 
81 

68 

51 
39 

24 


27 
36 


195 
176 
146 

119 

109 

96 

79 
67 
51 

27 

8 


203 
184 
154 

127 
117 
104 

87 
75 
59 

36 
8 




ROUTES TO PECOS VALLEY. 

General conditions. — The railroad trip from Tularosa Basin to 
Pecos Valley is made by going north to Vaughn, east over the Belen 
cut-off to Clovis, and thence southwest and south over another branch 
of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe system, or it can be made over 
a southern route by way of El Paso and Pecos, Tex. Both of these 
routes are long, tedious, and expensive, and there is therefore con- 
siderable inducement to make the trip more directly by wagon. The 
trip can also be made by going to Vaughn and there taking an auto- 
mobile stage which runs to Roswell daily, a distance of fully 100 
miles. , 

The mountains east of the Tularosa Basin and the plateau that lies 
back of them contain a number of small settlements and enough 
springs and other watering places to make travel comparatively eas}^. 
Since in many places the mountains are steep and high, the main 
routes of travel were through the more open passes or up the larger 
canyons. 

Alamogordo routes. — A branch railroad runs from Alamogordo up 
Fresnal Canyon in the abrupt escarpment of the Sacramento Moun- 
tains, through the stations of Mountain Park and Highrolls, to a 
point some distance beyond the summer resort known as Cloudcroft. 
This remarkable little railway, by means of a switchback and numer- 
ous sharp reverse curves and horseshoe bends, ascends more than 
four-fifths of a mile in its course from Alamogordo to Cloudcroft, a 
distance of 26 miles by rail and 13 miles by air line. A good wagon 
road with steep grades also leads to Cloudcroft by way of Fresnal 
Canyon. Cloudcroft is provided with waterworks, and satisfactory 
water can be obtained also at Mountain Park and other points along 
the road. 



232 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



Plate III (in pocket) shows the roads and watering places east of 
Cloudcroft, and figure 50 shows the post offices and mail routes 
between Cloudcroft and Artesia and the distances between the post 
offices. According to Jesse Mills, one of the mail carriers, there is 
water at Mayhill, at Elk, at several points along the road between 
Mayhill and Elk, at Lower Penasco, at points 7 and 15 miles from 
Lower Penasco on the road between that post office and Hope post 
office, at Hope, and at Artesia. 

Tularosa routes. — An excellent road, built chiefly by the Indians 
of the reservation, leads from the village of Tularosa, up the valley 
of Tularosa River, past the small mining camp of Bent, to the 
Mescalero Agency, a distance of 19 miles. Water in abundance is 
found along this road. There is daily mail and stage service between 







> 



-- ';rfeS.,, ; 






-£&£. 

^ 






105 



25Miles 



Figure 50. — Map showing settlements connected with Cloudcroft by mail routes and route 
from Cloudcroft to Artesia. After post-route map of New Mexico, Jan. 1, 1914. 
Arabic numbers show distances between points ; roman numerals show number of days 
per week that mail is carried. 

Tularosa and Mescalero. From the agency a road leads northeast- 
ward across the divide to the Euidoso and thence to Eoswell, and 
another road leads southeastward, connecting with Cloudcroft and 
other settlements in the Sacramento Mountains. (PL III, in pocket.) 

East of -Oscuro and Three Rivers station the Sierra Blanca is so 
lofty and precipitous that it can only with difficulty be crossed. 
Hence, these stations are not connected by any direct roads with the 
settlements east of the mountains. 

Carrizozo routes. — Carrizozo is the supply station for a number of 
settlements that lie farther east (fig. 51). A stage route furnishing 
daily mail service leads northeastward to the old mining town of 
Whiteoaks, a distance of about 12 miles. A branch railroad leads 
eastward through the open pass between Carrizo Mountain and the 
Sierra Blanca, to Capitan, a distance of 22 miles. A system of mail 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 



233 



routes also connects Carrizozo, more or less directly, with Nogal, 
Parsons, Capitan, Fort Stanton, Lincoln, and a number of other small 
settlements in the " Mesa " region, and with Roswell, in the Pecos 
Valley. The " Mesa " settlements of Lincoln County are not far 
apart and have no lack of good watering places, but the eastern part 
of the trip to Roswell is less favored. 

Ancho routes. — A good wagon road with easy grades leads from 
Ancho to the small mining town of Jicarilla, picturesquely situated 
in the mountains of the same name. Over this road, which is about 
8 miles long, a stage carrying the mail is operated daily except Sun- 
day. Various roads connect Jicarilla with Whiteoaks and points 
farther east. A reliable water supply is found at Jicarilla (p. 257). 



•*^£arriz_ozo / Xio r- 

hyT" > 



^ 






105 



Carrizozo 



Nogal) 



^Parsons /«%"%::? 11 7v^ 













I \ ^: wv ) (' 






:^\ 






v.... 

Cr 



*r 



••• _JM" -v^ \ ROSWELL., 
1: — — -%r~ vn ,-> 






J 



<& 



105' 



O 5 

1 H H E 



10 



25 Miles 



Figure 51. — Map showing settlements connected with Carrizozo by mail routes and route 
from Carrizozo to Roswell. After post-route map of New Mexico, Jan. 1, 1914. Arabic 
numbers show distances between points ; roman numerals show number of days per 
week that mail is carried. 

ROUTES TO ESTANCIA VALLEY AND ADJACENT REGIONS. 



GENERAL CONDITIONS. 



Except in the area covered by the Gallinas Mountains the region 
immediately north of Tularosa Basin is a rather open plateau that 
presents few obstacles to travel. On the west it is bordered by the 
escarpment of a still higher plain, known as the Chupadera Plateau ; 
toward the north it extends as the Mesa Jumanes, to the Estancia 
Valley, where it ends in an abrupt cliff; toward the northeast it is 
separated by only low hills and bluffs from the extensive upland 
that slopes toward the Pecos. 

The two principal routes leading north from Tularosa Basin are 
(1) the Corona route, which follows the railroad and passes east of 
the Gallinas Mountains; and (2) the Gran Quivira route, which 
passes west of these mountains and leads more directly to Estancia 



234 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TTJLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Valley. The Corona route is the nearest way to Pinos Wells, Encino, 
and Vaughn ; the Gran Quivira route is much more direct to Moun- 
tainair and the villages of the Manzano^foothills, and is about 15 
miles shorter than the Corona route to Willard, Estancia, or Santa 
Fe. The Corona route follows the railroad and remains close to 
water and food supplies; the Gran Quivira route passes through a 
vacant region with long distances between watering places. Both 
routes are, on the whole, good wagon roads. 

CORONA ROUTE. 

Carrizozo and points west of the malpais to Torrance and Cedar- 
vale. — The road from Carrizozo to Corona follows the railroad in 
its general course. Water is to be had at either of the ranches be- 
tween Coyote and Ancho shown in Plate I (in pocket), at the village 
of Ancho, and at a few points between Ancho and Corona. With a 
slight detour the trip to Ancho can be made by way of Red Lake 
(PL I). 

Persons coming from the direction of Ozanne Spring pass Duck 
Lake, Red Lake, and the French ranch that is between Red Lake 
and Ancho, as shown in Plate I. Those coming from a point west 
of the malpais either take the same route or else cross the malpais 
at the upper or lower crossing, and thence go by way of Carrizozo. 

At Torrance will be found hotel accommodations and a water sup- 
ply obtained from the railroad pipe line. There are also a few 
ranches with wells in that vicinity. 

Cedarvale is a village where food supplies and water can be ob- 
tained. The water, which is hard but otherwise not seriously min- 
eralized, is derived from a drilled well 298 feet deep. Several other 
wells are in use on homesteads near Cedarvale. 

Torrance to Vaughn and beyond. — A wagon trip to Duran or 
Vaughn presents no special difficulties, since water can be obtained 
at both stations. There are no successful wells in the immediate 
vicinity of Vaughn, but the town is supplied with water from the 
El Paso & Southwestern Railroad pipe line. 

A well 218 feet deep, yielding very hard water, is reported about 7 
miles southwest of Vaughn (sec. 1 or 2, T. 3 N., R. 16 E.). A small 
but reliable supply of water is to be had from a spring on Monroe 
Williams's ranch, about 8 miles north-northwest of Vaughn, and a 
few springs and wells are scattered at widely separated points farther 
north. The small settlement of Pintada, on Pintada Canyon, is inter- 
mediate between Vaughn and the settlements on the Pecos above 
Santa Rosa. 

In the extensive area lying between the El Paso & Southwestern 
Railroad and Pecos River there are few reliable watering places, 
except in a belt near the river where homesteads with good wells 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 235 

are found. Before making a trip across this upland prairie infor- 
mation should be procured in regard to watering places. 

Water can be obtained at several points along the railroad between 
Vaughn and Fort Sumner, chiefly from railroad cisterns which are 
provided with supplies shipped in by the railroad company. At 
Buchanan, which is 36 miles by rail from Vaughn, there is a railroad 
cistern and also a well. Between Vaughn and Buchanan cisterns 
have been constructed at the stations of Iden, Casaus, and Cardenas. 
From Buchanan a mail route extends southeastward a distance of 37 
miles to Dunlap post office, situated about 12 miles due west of the 
river. From Yeso station, 12J miles east of Buchanan, a mail route 
runs to Elvira, 12 miles almost due north, and to Guadalupe, on Pecos 
River, about 10 miles above Fort Sumner. East of Ricardo are sev- 
eral wells that yield satisfactory supplies. The well at Agudo is 208 
feet deep and furnishes a small amount of satisfactory water. 

In regard to the automobile road from Vaughn to Roswell, C M. 
Farnsworth, proprietor of the automobile stage, made the following 
statement in March, 1912 : 

There is no permanent water on the entire trip of 100 miles. At our half- 
way station, which is about 50 miles from Roswell, we supply water by hauling 
from a ranch and windmill which is about 15 miles distant. During the rainy 
seasons there are numerous water holes that will hold water for two or three 
months, but these are not to be depended upon. 

Torrance to Pinos Wells, Encino, and beyond. — A mail route 
extends from Cedarvale to the small settlement of Pinos Wells. 
Northeast of the post office there is a shallow-water area in which 
are two large alkali flats and a tract covered with gypsum sands. 
In this area there are several ranches, with shallow wells, the water 
from which is highly mineralized but can, with reasonable pre- 
cautions, be given to horses. Water of better quality, hauled from 
springs on the west side of the basin, can generally be obtained at 
the ranches for drinking and cooking. 

The trip from Pinos Wells to Encino can be made by going on 
either the east or the west side of the alkali flats. Along the road 
between the Pinos Wells and Encino basins there is a ranch with 
a well that yields fairly good water. The wells in the shallow-water 
area south of Encino yield highly mineralized water, and there are 
few reliable watering places in that area before Encino is reached. 
Pinos Wells post office is some distance west of the direct route from 
Torrance to Encino. 

On the road between Encino and Vaughn there are no watering 
places except near Encino. 

In the region north of Encino there are a few wells, but in some 
parts of the region they are far apart. A good watering place is 
D. J. Bigbee's ranch (NW. J sec. 23, T. 7 N., R. 13 E.), about 15 



236 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TtTLAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

miles north-northwest of Encino, at which there is a drilled well 230 
feet deep, with a good yield of satisfactory water. Several wells 
will also be found on the road between Encino and Bigbee's ranch. 
Palma is a small settlement almost due north of Encino and about 24 
miles distant by wagon road. It is connected with Encino by a mail 
route, along which there are two watering places, one a well and the 
other a " tank " filled with surface water. From Palma the Pecos 
River settlements to the north and the vicinity of Las Vegas can be 
reached. 

The road from Encino to Estancia Valley crosses a low divide with 
gentle grades. Although there are few wells on the dividing upland 
the distances between watering places are not very great. At Negra, 
a station 5 miles west of Encino, the railroad company has several 
wells, and there are other wells in that vicinity, all of which yield good 
water. Immediately west of the divide there are ranches at which 
water of fairly good quality can be obtained. Some of the shallow 
wells in the lowest part of Estancia Valley yield salty water, but the 
water from the deeper-drilled wells is generally less highly min- 
eralized. 

Cedarvale to Willard, Estancia, and beyond. — Water can be ob- 
tained at Progresso and at several ranches on or near the road that 
leads from Cedarvale to Willard. The supply at Progresso is de- 
rived from a dug well about 35 feet deep, and is of satisfactory 
quality. Between Willard and Stanley there are numerous wells, 
nearly all of which yield good water. Plenty of water will also be 
found in going from Estancia Valley to any of the villages in the 
Manzano foothills. 

From Estancia the upland in the vicinity of Palma is reached by 
way of Pedernal Mountain or by a somewhat longer road leading up 
the Canada Colorada, or Red Canyon. Watering places are passed 
at a number of points between Estancia and the Pedernal Hills, and 
there are also several ranches with reliable supplies in Red Canyon. 
On the Pedernal route water will be found at a ranch 5 miles from 
Palma and sometimes at a ranch 9 miles from Palma. 

The road from Stanley to Santa Fe leads to the north end of 
Estancia Valley and then descends rapidly to Galisteo Creek. About 
3 miles beyond the point where the descent begins the road passes 
through a narrow opening in an igneous dike, known as the " Gate- 
way." There is no well near the north end of Estancia Valley, but a 
shallow well will be found at the Gateway, and there are other water- 
ing places between the Gateway and the village of Kennedy. From 
Kennedy the city of Santa Fe and the numerous smaller settlements 
of the north-central part of the State are easily reached. 



WATERING PLACES ON EOUTES OF TRAVEL. 



237 



Table of distances. — The following table gives the distances be- 
tween the principal points reached by the Corona route : 

Distances in miles between points north of Tularosa Basin, via Corona route. 





d 

fe 
So 

o 

§ 
3 


A 

o 

fe 


© 

o 

9 

t-c 
M 

o 
Eh 


4 
> 


CO 

1 

CO 

O 

.3 

p-i 


d 

1 

o 
PI 


03 

1 

Ah 


> 
o 


t-c 


'I 

+s 

CO 


ft 

S 


Alamogordo 




14 

58 

109 

117 

129 
145 
186 

129 
144 

168 

120 
135 

a 147 
a 159 
176 
a 191 
a 202 
a 211 
a 234 


109 
96 

51 


8 

20 
36 

78 

&20 
35 
59 

11 

26 

38 

50, 

67 

82 

93 
102 
125 


117 

104 

59 

8 



12 
28 
70 

12 
27 
51 

10 
25 
37 
49 
66 
81 
92 
101 
124 


145 

132 

87 

36 

28 

16 



42 

c37 

17 

c41 

38 

57 
54 
71 


129 

116 

71 

6 20 
12 


144 

131 

86 

35 

27 


168 

155 

110 

59 

51 


120 

107 

62 

11 

10 


a 147 

134 

a 89 

38 

37 


a 159 

146 

a 101 

50 

49 


a 234 


Tularosa 


221 


Carrizozo 


a 176 


Corona 


125 


Torrance 


124 


Duran 




Vaughn 


c37 

79 


20 

44 

9 

13 

25 

36 

53 

<*68 

d79 

<*88 

dill 


17 
59 

20 



24 

29 


c41 

44 

24 



53 


38 
80 

9 
29 
53 


15 
27 
39 
56 
71 
82 
91 
114 


57 
99 

25 

40 

c56 

27 
12 

12 
29 
44 
55 
64 
87 


54 




Santa Rosa. 




Pinos Wells 


36 
37 

44 

39 
24 
12 

17 
32 
43 
52 
75 


dill 


Encino 




Palma 




Cedarvale 


114 


Progresso 


99 


Willajd 


40 
37 
54 


d56 
44 


87 


Estancia 


75 


Moriarty 


58 


Stanley 


43 


Gateway 






32 


Kennedy 






23 


Santa Fe 


















a Via Corona. 



& Via Torrance. 



c Via Encino. 



d Via Estancia. 



GRAN QUIVIRA ROUTE. 

Carrizozo and points west of the malpais to Gran Quivira. — The 
trip from Carrizozo to Gran Quivira (p. 255) can be made either by 
way of Red Lake or by way of Indian tank. (PL I, in pocket.) 
From Indian tank (p. 256) a road can betaken that leads nearly due 
north and joins the Eed Lake road about 12 miles from the tank, or a 
more westerly route can be followed running near the escarpment 
of the Chupadera Plateau. All are naturally good roads, and there 
is not much choice between them. The Red Lake route has but 
slight advantage in distance over the right-hand Indian tank route, 
but it is about 5 miles shorter than the left-hand Indian tank route. 

The Red Lake route was not traversed south of its junction with 
the Indian tank route, and consequently its junctions with the roads 
from French's north ranch and Warden's ranch, respectively, are not 
accurately shown in Plate I. The last watering place on this road be- 
fore reaching Gran Quivira is Red Lake (p. 261) . The following land- 
marks along the road are convenient : The junction with the Indian 
tank road is 12 miles from Red Lake and 21 miles from the Gran 
Quivira well ; the conspicuous ridge known as the " Divide " is 17 
miles from the Gran Quivira well ; the large, crater-like sink hole on 
the west side of the road is 9 miles from this well; and the south 



238 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

ruins, which though almost completely demolished can be recognized 
on account of their conspicuous position on the west side of the road, 
are 3J miles from the Gran Quivira well. After leaving the south 
ruins the road becomes very sandy. When Eed Lake is dry it is 
generally expedient either to haul water from Carrizozo or to make 
a detour to French's ranch or some other ranch in the vicinity of 
Ancho. 

The following are convenient landmarks on the left-hand Indian 
tank road : A large sink hole, about 10 miles from the tank and 28 
miles from the Gran Quivira well ; a pond that contains water after 
the summer rains but is dry most of the time, near the road and less 
than a mile from the sink hole ; the " Divide," 15 miles from the Gran 
Quivira well ; two monuments on the east side of road, 5 miles from 
the well; and the junction with the main road from Carrizozo, 2 
miles from the w T ell. In going southward from the Gran Quivira 
well, this road is the third branch road that leaves the main route 
and trends southwestward. When Indian tank (p. 256) is dry, water 
can be hauled from Carrizozo or a detour can be made to French's 
ranch at the northwestern extremity of the younger lava bed (p. 254). 

Persons coming from the west can take a short course by turning 
northward after they have descended from the Chupadera Plateau, 
but there is no good road in this direction and it is generally more 
expedient to go east to Indian tank or Duck Lake (p. 253) for a water 
supply. 

Gran Quivira to Willard, Estancia, and beyond. — The road from 
Gran Quivira to Willard leads northward and enters Estancia Val- 
ley through a rock canyon several miles before reaching Willard. 
The routes leading out of Estancia Valley have been described in 
connection with the Corona route. (See pp. 234-236.) 

Gran Quivira to Mountainair, Manzano, and beyond. — From Gran 
Quivira the settlements of the Manzano foothills are easily reached 
by way of Mount ainair. The townsite well at Mount ainair, which is 
drilled to a depth of 303 feet, yields a small but sufficient supply of 
good water that is available to the public. On the road leading from 
this village to Manzano, about 4 miles north of Mountainair (SW. J 
sec. 8, T. 4 N., E. 7 E.), is the 110- foot drilled well of S. E. Seymour, 
which yields good water. Shallow wells will be found in the Ar- 
royo Mesteno, a short distance farther north, and there are wells and 
springs in the vicinity of Punta. Watering places will be found at 
convenient intervals along the principal roads in the foothills between 
Punta and Chilili. The Eio Grande valley can be reached either by 
way of Abo Canyon or by way of Tijeras Canyon. 

Table of distances. — The following table gives the distances be- 
tween the principal watering places and objective points on the 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 



239 



Gran Quivira route. Distances given in this table can be compared 
with distances between the same points as given in the table for the 
Corona route. 

Distances in miles between wateritig places on Gran Quivira route. 





6 

O 

a 

< 


o 

O 

i 


S ® 

CO 1- ' 

Pi 3 


M 

03 

PI 

'•£ 


M 
03 


Pi o 

03,3 
PI 

gl 


6 

■a 

< 


o 

a 

C3 
VI 

h 

CD 

'd 

03- 

> 


C3 
j> 

"s 

<y 
pi 

03 

o 


'3 

.a 

03 

PI 
g 




Alamogordo 




58 

60 
64 
75 
75 

74 

78 

a 84 

83 

a 107 


58 


2 

6 

17 

17 

16 

20 

a 26 

25 

a 49 


75 
17 

15 

11 



2 

7 
11 
17 
16 

35 


75 
17 

15 

11 

2 



5 

9 

15 

14 

33 


74 
16 

14 
10 

7 
5 


4 

10 
9 

33 


78 
20 

18 

14 

11 

9 

4 

6 
5 

32 


a 84 
a 26 

24 
20 
17 
15 

10 
6 

4 

35 


83 
25 

23 
19 
16 
14 

9 
5 
4 


31 


a 107 
a 49 

47 
43 
35 
33 

33 
32 
35 
31 




130 

72 

70 

a 66 

58 

56 

56 
55 
58 
54 

23 


& 132 


Carrizozo 


674 


McDonald's spring (Bar W 
ranch) 


72 


Pramberg's well 


«68 


French's ranch (Duck Lake) 

Indian tank 


60 
58 


Red Lake 


58 


French's ranch (near Ancho) 

Ancho 


57 
& 60 


Warden's ranch 


56 


Gran Quivira 


25 


Mountainair 


130 
138 
143 

&132 
6 144 
&219 


72 
80 

85 

6 74 

&86 

&161 


58 
66 
71 

60 

72 

147 


56 
64 
69 

58 

70 

145 


55 
64 
69 

58 

70 

145 


55 
63 
68 

57 

69 

144 


58 
66 
71 

&60 

b 72 
6 147 


54 
62 
67 

56 

68 

143 


23 
31 
36 

25 

37 

112 




8 
13 

25 

25 

100 


25 


Punta d?l Agua 


15 


Manzano 


20 


Willard 





Estancia 


12 


Santa Fe 


87 







a Via Red Lake. 



& Via Gran Quivira. 



ROUTES TO RIO GRANDE VALLEY. 



GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

Two sets of physical barriers intervene between the settlements of 
eastern Tularosa Basin and those on the Rio Grande: (1) The lava 
beds, gypsum sands, and alkali flats along the axis of Tularosa Basin, 
and (2) the mountain ranges on the west side of the basin (PL I, in 
pocket) . The tongue of younger lava forms a barrier 43 miles long 
that can not be crossed by wagon except at the two places where 
roads have been built over it, and the gypsum sands and alkali flats 
form a barrier which is not crossed by a wagon road in a north-south 
distance of about 30 miles. The mountains are interrupted by a 
number of gaps and low passes through which lead the principal 
roads to the Rio Grande. 

HANSONBERG ROUTE. 

General outline. — The shortest route from Carrizozo and points 
farther north in Tularosa Basin to San Antonio, on the Rio Grande, 
is by way of the Hansonberg ranch and Carthage post office. From 
points farther south in Tularosa Basin the trip to San Antonio can 
also be made by way of the Mockingbird Gap route. Persons taking 



240 GEOLOGY AND WATER EESOUECES OF TULAEOSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the Hansonberg route go north of the younger lava ; those taking the 
Mockingbird Gap route either cross the lava or go around its south 
end. (See fig. 1, p. 12, and PL I, in pocket.) 

The Hansonberg ranch is reached either by way of the so-called 
iron mines or b} T way of Ozanne Spring, both routes crossing the 
southern part of the Chupadera Plateau or the northern part of the 
Oscuro Mountains. Hansonberg is situated near the west base of 
the mountains and is separated from Carthage by a desert plain. 

To Hansonberg by way of iron mines. — The road to the iron mines 
leads north of the two old craters known as the Cerros Prietos. 
Roads from Indian tank, from the north end of the younger lava, 
and from Duck Lake by Avay of Serano tank (p. 26*2) all converge 
near the foot of the Chupadera Plateau about 2 miles east-northeast 
of the north crater, where a small canyon emerges from the plateau. 
Chupadera Spring (p. 251) is situated some distance up this canyon. 
The road ascends the flank of the plateau on the south side of the 
canyon, near the contact between the old lava and the limestone and 
gypsum formations, and continues near this contact until the north- 
western corner of the lava bed is reached. 

To Hansonberg by way of Ozanne. — Persons going to Ozanne 
Spring by a road leading north of the younger lava bed generally stop 
for water at French's ranch, near Duck Lake (p. 254), at the north- 
western extremity of this bed. From Duck Lake the road trends 
southwestward near the margin of the old lava bed for a distance of 
nearly 4 miles and then branches, the north fork leading westward 
over the lava and the south fork continuing in a southwesterly direc- 
tion along the edge of the lava. 

The north fork crosses about 2 miles of lava and then continues 
about 2 miles farther in a westward direction to Phillips well (p. 260) , 
whence Ozanne Spring is reached by way of Schole's well (p. 262). 

The south fork avoids the lava by making a small detour. After 
leading southwestward for some distance it branches, the right-hand 
road leading to Ozanne Spring by way of Schole's well, and the left- 
hand road leading to Red Canyon. In Red Canyon one road leads 
northward to Ozanne Spring and Hansonberg, while others lead 
southward to the upper crossing, to the 7X7 ranch and the lower 
crossing, and to Estey and Mockingbird Gap. Persons coming 
from any of the points just mentioned or from still farther south 
approach Ozanne Spring by way of Red Canyon. Those coming by 
way of the upper crossing can obtain water at Lower Willow Spring 
(p. 265) or at Lee's ranch (p. 257) ; those by way of the lower cross- 
ing at the 7 X 7 ranch (p. 263) ; and those from farther west at Mill's 
ranch (p. 259) and Estey (p. 253). Between these points and Ozanne 
Spring water is obtained at Schole's ranch, known as the Red Canyon 
ranch, and said to be situated about 12 miles north of Estey. 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 



241 



Table of distances. — The following table gives the distances be- 
tween certain of the watering places on the Hansonberg route : 

Distances in miles between watering places on Hansonberg route. 





o 
O 

'fci 

C 
03 

o 


d 
o 

a 

< 


03 
> 

"B 

0? 

a 

Sh 

o 




£ o 




£ 

u 

ft 
m 

9 
H 

o 


<3 
to 

B 

n 

o 

H 

1— I 


e 
bi 
S 

a 

o 

CO 


e 

® 

03 

xi 

03 

O 


a 

o 

'3 

o 

CI 
< 

GO 






24 

49 

17 
17 

25 
31 
41 
50 

20 

23 
30 
50 

67 

77 


24 



35 

15 
17 

25 
31 
41 

47 

20 

f>20 
27 

47 

64 

74 


49 

35 



33 
35 

43 
49 
59 
65 

38 

&38 
45 
65 

82 
92 


17 

15 

33 


2 

10 
16 
26 
32 

.5 

5 

12 
32 

49 
59 


17 
17 
35 

2 



8 
14 
24 
33 

3 

6 

13 
33 

50 
60 


41 
41 
59 

26 

24 

16 

10 



10 

26 

10 

27 
37 


30 

27 

45 

12 
13 

20 

10 

7 



20 

37 
47 


50 

47 

65 

32 
33 

26 

20 

10 



30 

27 

20 



17 
27 


67 

64 

82 

49 
50 

43 
37 
27 
17 

47 

44 
37 

17 


10 


77 




74 


Gran Quivira 


92 


Indian tank 


59 


French's ranch (Duck Lake) 


60 


Phillips well 


53 


Schole's well a 


47 


Ozanne Springs 


37 


Hansonberg a 


27 


Serano tank 


57 


Chupadera Spring 


54 


lion mines a 


47 


Hansonbergo 


27 


Carthage^ 


10 


San Antonio o 










a Distances from this point were not determined but are estimated. 
b Via Indian tank. 

MOCKINGBIRD GAP ROUTE. 

General conditions. — Mockingbird Gap lies between the San An- 
dreas and Little Burro ranges. It is in the western part of T. 9 S., 
E. 5 E., about 25 miles west-northwest of Oscuro and nearly an equal 
distance south of Hansonberg. It forms the easiest pass to the 
Jornada del Muerto and is much used in going to the settlements on 
the Rio Grande from San Antonio to Elephant Butte. A road also 
leads northward through the gap between the Little Burro and 
Oscuro ranges, but it is not extensively used. Most of the watering 
places on the various roads leading to Mockingbird Gap are shown 
on the map, Plate I (in pocket). 

Oscuro and Three Rivers to Mockingbird Gap. — The main Mock- 
ingbird Gap route is the road from Oscuro, which leads over the 
lava at the lower crossing and thence follows the general course of 
the telephone line. 

After leaving Phillips Spring, which is a well-known and re- 
liable watering place (p. 260) , no water is to be had along this road 
until Thomas McDonald's tank (p. 258) is reached, or, when the tank 
is dry, until McDonald's ranch (p. 258) is reached. This ranch is 
situated at the east end of the gap, within the drainage area of 
Tularosa Basin, and Murray is situated at the west end of the gap 

48731°— wsp 343—15 1G 



242 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

and on the opposite side of the divide. Both places have reliable 
water supplies. The trip from Three Rivers can be made by way of 
Oscuro or by way of Malpais Spring (p. 259). 

Camzozo to Mockingbird Gap. — The shortest route from Carri- 
zozo to Mockingbird Gap is by way of the upper crossing (PL I). 
After going over the lava bed it is generally advisable to take the 
road that runs near the west margin of the lava to the lower cross- 
ing, and thence take the mail route, which follows the telephone line. 
On this route water can be obtained at Lower Willow Spring (p. 265) 
and at the T X 7 ranch (p. 263). From the 7X7 ranch the trip can 
also be made over a less frequented road by way of Mills ranch, 
where water can be obtained (p. 259). 

Since in recent years the upper crossing has not been in good condi- 
tion, loaded wagons from Carrizozo have generally been taken by the 
somewhat longer route through Oscuro and over the lower crossing. 

Duck Lake and Red Canyon to Mockingbird Gap. — From French's 
ranch, near Duck Lake, at the north end of the younger lava bed, a 
road leads southward between the lava and the limestone hills and 
joins the road from Carrizozo at the upper crossing. The only 
watering place on this road is at Lee's ranch (p. 257), situated less 
than a mile north of the upper crossing. (PL I, in pocket.) 

Persons coming from Red Canyon will find the best route by way 
of Estey and Mills ranch, at both of which water can be obtained. 

Tularosa and Malpais Spiing to Mockingbird Gap. — From Tula- 
rosa and points farther south the trip to Mockingbird Gap is made 
by a road that leads past Black Lake ranch and the south end of the 
lava to Malpais Spring (p. 259) . From this spring roads lead north- 
ward to Mound Springs (p. 259), northwestward to James R. Gilil- 
land's ranch (p. 254), and westward to the alkali flats. The road to 
Gililland's ranch leads the most directly to Mockingbird Gap. On 
this road the watering places between Malpais Spring and Murray 
are Gililland's and McDonald's ranches. Mound Springs and 
McDonald's tank are situated east of this road. (See PL I, in 
pocket. ) 

Mockingbird Gap to the Rio Grande. — The roads leading from 
Mockingbird Gap to the towns on the Rio Grande cross an exten- 
sive plain, a part of which has shallow water. On the road to Car- 
thage water is obtained at Smith's ranch, about 10 miles from Mur- 
ray. The road to Engle and Elephant Butte passes several ranches 
at which water can be obtained. 

Table of distances. — The following table gives the distances be- 
tween watering places that are used in going to the Rio Grande by 
way of Mockingbird Gap: 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OP TRAVEL. 



243 



Distances in miles between watering places on Mockingbird Gap route. 



CO M 

O 3 

u — 



M 



H 



a 



0) CO 



ft 
02 



cS 
ft 
C3 



o 



French's ranch (Duck Lake). 
Lee's ranch 



Carrizozo 

Lower Willow Spring. . . 
Willow Spring reservoir. 

7X7 ranch 



Estey 

Mills ranch 



Oscuro 

Phillips Spring 

Thomas McDonald's tank. . 
Thomas McDonald's ranch. 
Murray 





18 

17 
20 
19 

24 

a 34 
a 33 

6 33 



Three Rivers (railway station). 



Tularosa 

Black Lake. 



a 41 
a 45 
a 48 

6 45 

62 



17 
13 


11 
13 

18 

a 28 
a 27 

16 
19 

a 35 
a 39 

a 42 

28 
45 



24 
6 

18 

7 
5 



10 
9 

10 
7 

16 
21 
24 

c22 

c40 



34 
a 16 

a 28 

a 17 

15 

10 


5 

15 

12 

dll 

dl6 

3 

c27 

c45 



6 33 
16 



Malpais Spring 

Mound Springs e 

Roberts ranch (Old Mayes 
ranch) 



Gililland's ranch. 
Murray 



48 
38 

33 

44 
a 48 



Carthage/ 

San Marcial /. 

Engle / 



45 
a 32 

a 27 

a 38 
a 42 

72 
76 

87 



24 
14 



23 

a 13 

13 



(14 



a 29 
17 

12 

23 

27 

57 
61 

72 



a 45 
27 

a 39 
28 
26 

21 

««16 
11 

24 

21 

4 



3 

c36 

45 
29 

20 
14 



a 48 
30 

a 42 
31 
29 

24 

dl9 

14 

27 

24 

7 

3 



39 



32 

24 

18 



6 45 
28 



(12 



45 



48 

30 

45 



c22 

c27 

c26 

12 

15 

c32 

c36 

c39 



17 



c40 
c45 



29 
32 



24 

d23 
18 

a 29 



16 



30 

34 

45 



25 
c39 



45 

48 

17 


16 

25 
35 

40 

33 

48 

78 
82 

S3 



20 

24 

17 

25 
9 



10 

15 



24 

54 

58 



44 
26 

a 38 
27 
25 

20 



23 
20 



12 
16 

25 

33 

17 

8 
6 

11 


16 

46 
50 



a Via upper crossing. 

6 Via Carrizozo. 

c Via lower crossing. 

d Via Mills ranch. 

e North spring; another spring 1£ miles farther south. 

/ Distances from this point are estimated via Mockingbird Gap. 



LAVA GAP ROUTE. 



Lava Gap was at one time important as the approach to the Tula- 
rosa Basin through which passed one of the military roads that 
connected Fort Stanton with the Rio Grande valley. It is still exten- 
sively used by persons living in the Tularosa Basin and farther east 
who go to Eagle, Elephant Butte, Palomas Springs, and other points 
in the Rio Grande valley. The gap is situated in the San Andreas 
Range between Capitol and Salinas peaks. (See PL I.) It is trav- 
ersed by a good road, but the approach is somewhat steeper than that 
to Mockingbird Gap. 

The trip through Lava Gap is best made by way of Gililland's ranch 
(PI. I, in pocket), which is reached by several roads from different 
directions. The road from Tularosa leads past Black Lake ranch 



244 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

and Malpais Spring, as already indicated (p. 242 and PL II, in 
pocket). The road from Three Rivers also leads south of the lava 
and joins the road from Tularosa at the south point of the lava, 
about 2 miles from Malpais Spring. From Oscuro and points far- 
ther north the shortest routes cross the lava and lead from the lower 
crossing to Gililland's by way of Roberts ranch (the old Andy Mayes 
ranch) (p. 262) and Mound Springs (p. 259). 

The distance from Gililland's ranch to the summit of Lava Gap 
is estimated to be about 10 or 11 miles. Walter George's ranch, a 
dependable watering place (p. 254), is situated along this stretch of 
the road, about 6 miles from Gililland's. Dripping Spring (p. 253) 
and E. E. Thurgood's ranch (p. 264) are situated between George's 
ranch and the summit of the gap, but they are nearly a mile south 
of the road and are not generally used as watering places. 

The road from Lava Gap to Engle crosses the Jornada del Muerto 
and is approximately 40 miles long. Watering places along this 
route are the Hopel tank, the Tucson ranch, and the Deep Wells. 
At the Tucson ranch, which is one of the ranches of the Victoria 
Land & Cattle Co., there is a permanent spring that yields water 
which is said to be rather highly mineralized but to be used for 
drinking and culinary purposes. 

The distances between the principal watering places east of Gilil- 
land's ranch are shown in the table on page 243. 

SULPHUR CANYON ROUTE. 

Alamogordo and Tidarosa to Sulphur Canyon. — The Sulphur Can- 
yon route is the shortest route from Alamogordo and Tularosa to 
Cutter, Engle, Elephant Butte, and Palomas Springs, and is for 
this reason frequently traveled. (See Pis. I and II, in pocket.) 

The main road leads from Tularosa with a westerly course, over 
the northern part of the white sands, as shown on the map, Plate II. 
This road passes several wells, in the vicinity of Tularosa, the last 
one that is generally used by travelers being on the ranch of H. W. 
Purday, NE. J sec. 28, T. 14 S., R. 9 E. (p. 261). After leaving these 
wells there is no watering place until R itch's tank (p. 262) on the 
west side of the sands is reached. About 2 miles beyond the tank 
is a well belonging to W. L. Ritch (p. 261), which, however, is not 
always kept in repair. There are also a few wells, some of them 
yielding bad water, on the west side of the valley within several 
miles of the road. (See list, pp. 268-299.) The most reliable 
watering place on the road is the spring at the ranch of George E. 
Stone, situated in the canyon. In dry seasons, when Ritch's tank 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 245 

is empty, this spring may be the first place along the road after leav- 
ing Purday's ranch at which water can be obtained. 

West side of the malpais to Sulphur Canyon. — Persons coming to 
Sulphur Canyon from some northerly point will find a series of 
ranches, most of them uninhabited, at some of which water can be 
obtained either from wells or tanks. (See Pis. I and II, in pocket.) 
Most of the well water is unfit for human use and should be given to 
horses with caution. These ranches are described in the list of water- 
ing places (pp. 249-265), under the headings "Jackson ranches," 
" Henderson ranches," and " Hunter ranches." Cistern water for 
drinking can generally be obtained at the ranch of Mark Hunter, 
situated about 4 miles north of the main road. 

East side of the malpais to Sulphur Canyon. — From Three Rivers 
and points farther north on the east side of the younger lava bed the 
trip to Sulphur Canyon can be made by way of Tularosa, or by the 
shorter route leading past Malpais Spring and the ranches on the 
west side of the alkali flats. 

Dog Canyon to Sulphur Canyon. — From the Dog Canyon settle- 
ment the trip can be made either by way of Alamogordo, Tularosa, 
and Ritch's tank, or by a road leading over the south end of the 
white sands (Pis. I and II). The following watering places will 
be found on the southern route: The well at the Point of Sands 
(p. 260), Lucero's north ranch (p. 258), Baird's ranch (p. 250), 
Baird's north wells (p. 250), and Hitch's ranch (p. 261). The last- 
named ranch is situated 4 miles south of the main road from Tularosa. 
The best drinking water along this road is obtained from the well 
at Baird's ranch, but a supply of water from a mountain spring is 
usually kept at Ritch's ranch for drinking purposes. 

Sulphur Canyon to Cutter and Engle. — After emerging from the 
San Andreas Mountains the road to Engle and Cutter crosses the 
open desert of the Jornada del Muerto. There are no dependable 
watering places along this part of the road, but one or more earth 
reservoirs furnish water in certain seasons. 

Table of distances. — The following table gives the distances be- 
tween the principal watering places used in going to the Rio Grande 
valley by way of Sulphur Canyon: i 



246 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 
Distances in miles between watering places on Sulphur Canyon route. 





6 

6 

o 

be 
o 

1 

< 


d 
co 
O 
E 

03 


o 
a 
ca 
R 
co 

>> 
C3 

-6 


a 
a 

-t-5 

CO 

h 

s 




4 

o 

a 

e3 
_co 
"h 

a 

o 

CO 


fci 

.a 
g 

CO 

oj 
ft 

a 


Dog Canyon 
(railway sta- 
tion). 


CO 

a 

C3 

m 
o 

B 
o 

ft 


o 

a 
3 

u 

h 

■a 
pq 


a 

c3 

CO 

$ 

2 


Alamogordo 




14 

19 

b 46 

56 

39 
6 46 


14 



5 

32 

42 

25 
32 


19 

5 



27 

37 


6 46 

32 

27 



10 

26 

16 

5 


56 
42 
37 
10 


33 
23 
12 

c62 
49 
33 
24 
19 
10 


24 

28 


39 
25 


11 
25 


20 
d34 


c45 

d52 

e47 

20 

24 

43 
33 
22 

38 

25 

9 



5 

14 

24 

48 
52 


6 52 


Tularosa 


38 


Purday 's ranch 


33 


Ritch's tank 


26 
33 


10 
21 

6 50 

52 
43 
38 
29 
33 

/57 
/61 


c62 
c50 


49 


6 


Stone's ranch a 


10 


Malpais Spring 


29 


Jackson "home" ranch 


19 


Mark Hunter's ranch 



13 
29 
38 
43 
c52 
c62 

c86 
c90 


47 

13 

16 
25 
30 
39 
49 

73 
77 


8 


Dog Canyon (railway station) 


11 

20 

36 

c45 

c50 

6 52 

56 

6 80 
6 84 


25 
d34 
d50 
e52 
«47 
38 
42 

66 
70 




c 52 


Point of Sands 






39 


North Lucero ranch 


47 
42 
33 
37 

61 
65 


29 
20 
15 
6 
10 

34 
38 


23 


Baird's ranch 


14 


Baird 's north well 


9 


Ritch's ranch 





Stone's ranch o 


10 


Cuttera 


34 


Engle a 


38 







a Distances from this point are estimated. 

6 Via Tularosa. 

c Via Point of Sands. 



d Via Alamogordo. 
e Via Ritch's ranch. 
/ Via Sulphur Canyon. 



SAN AGTTSTIN PASS ROUTE. 

Alamogordo to San Agustin Pass. — The routes from Tularosa 
Basin to Las Cruces and Dona Ana converge between the San An- 
dreas and Organ ranges and lead through the San Agustin Pass, 
which is also known as the Organ Pass. After leaving the farming 
settlement that surrounds Alamogordo the road to Las Cruces and 
Dona Ana takes a direct course to a point on the southeast margin 
of the white sands, commonly called the " Point of Sands." At 
this point there is a shallow well that is much used by travelers and is 
the first watering place found on the road after leaving the Alamo- 
gordo settlement. (See Pis. I and II, in pocket, and p. 260.) From 
this well a road leads westward across the sands to the Eddy pros- 
pect, North Lucero ranch, Baird's ranch, and Ritch's ranch, but the 
road to San Agustin Pass and thence to Las Cruces or Dona Ana 
leaves the sands and leads south westward past two ranches belong- 
ing to W. H. McNew (one of which is the old Pelman ranch) and 
past Bennett's ranch, which is also known as the old Leatherman 
ranch (pp. 249-265). A little over 2 miles beyond the well at the 
Point of Sands a right-hand road leaves the main road and leads 
around the south end of the white sands to the Lucero ranches. 

There are two routes from Bennett's ranch to San Agustin Pass. 
The northern route, which is the more frequently traveled, passes 
a short distance south of the Gold Camp, where there is a water 
supply (p. 255), and past the Thompson ranch, where there is a 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OE TRAVEL. 247 

shallow well (p. 263). The southern route passes a short distance 
south of the so-called Steam-pump ranch, where there is also a 
water supply (p. 263). The northern and southern routes come 
together a little more than 2 miles east of the summit of San Agustin 
Pass. 

Tularosa and La Luz to San Agustin Pass. — The old stage route 
to Las Cruces led by a nearly direct course from Tularosa to the 
Point of Sands, as is indicated in Plates I and II, and thence 
followed the general course already outlined to San Agustin Pass. 
It was joined by a road from La Luz. These old roads can still be 
traveled, but persons now going from Tularosa or La Luz to the 
Point of Sands will do better to take the somewhat longer road 
by way of Alamogordo. On the old stage route satisfactory water 
can be obtained at the two wells shown on Plate I and at several 
others nearer Tularosa or La Luz, but between these wells and the 
Point of Sands there is no satisfactory watering place. The springs 
in the arroyos yield very poor water. (See analysis, p. 300.) 

Dog Canyon to San Agustin Pass. — The main road from the Dog 
Canyon settlement joins the road from Alamogordo at a point 3 J 
miles northeast of the Point of Sands. A shorter but poorer road 
leads more directly from Dog Canyon to the McNew ranches. From 
the McNew ranches to San Agustin Pass the routes are the same as 
from Alamogordo to the pass. (See PI. I.) 

West side of white sands to San Agustin Pass. — Persons going to 
Las Cruces or El Paso from some point on the west side of the 
Tularosa Basin will find a more or less distinct road leading south- 
ward and joining the road from Alamogordo a short distance north 
of Bennett's ranch (Pis. I and II). Water will be found at the 
McDonald, Hunter, Ritch, and Baird watering places. Probably 
the most dependable of these watering places south of Gililland's 
ranch are Mark Hunter's ranch, Pitch's ranch, Baird's ranch, and 
the South Lucero ranch (pp. 249-265). Most of the water along this 
road is poor and should be given to horses with caution. Good 
water will, however, be found at Baird's ranch and at the South 
Lucero ranch. San Nicholas Spring, which was a well-known water- 
ing place in the early days, is west of the main road and is now 
seldom used by travelers. The shortest route to San Agustin Pass 
leads about a mile west of Bennett's ranch. (See PI. I.) 

Orogrande to San Agustin Pass. — A road leads from Orogrande to 
San Agustin Pass by way of the Cox ranch, which is also called the 
San Agustin ranch (PI. I). This road was not traversed and its 
course is therefore not accurately shown on the map. According to 
the information obtained there is no satisfactory watering place be- 
tween Orogrande and the Cox ranch, but there is a water supply at 
this ranch. 



248 GEOLOGY AND WATER EESOUECES OF TULAEOSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

San Agustin Pass to Las Cruces and Dona Ana. — The small min- 
ing camp of Organ is 2 miles west of the summit of San Agustin 
Pass. At this place will be found a store, post office, and well. The 
well, which is on the ranch of C. R. Walter at the west end of the 
settlement, is dug to the depth of 25 feet and drilled the rest of the 
distance to a total depth of 60 feet. It has a permanent though rather 
small supply of hard but otherwise satisfactory water, which is 
pumped by a windmill and stored in a masonry reservoir. The wa- 
ter is sold at small price to travelers. Several roads lead from Organ 
to Las Cruces and the other settlements on the Rio Grande. In the 
fall of 1912 a new automobile road was being projected. There are 
several watering places between Organ and the Rio Grande, but they 
are not on the main roads. 

Table of distances. — The table on page 249 gives the distances be- 
tween the principal watering places on the routes leading through 
San Agustin Pass. 

ROUTES TO EL PASO. 

Outline. — The trip from Alamogordo or points farther north to 
El Paso can be made either by following the railroad or by taking a 
more western route past the Point of Sands (PI. I). Although the 
route along the railroad is considerably shorter than the western 
routes it should so far as possible be avoided because it is very sandy. 

Western routes.— In going to El Paso over the western routes the 
same roads to Bennett's ranch are generally followed as in going to 
Las Cruces (p. 246), although the most direct route from Alamogordo 
leaves the road to Bennett's ranch at the east McNew ranch (Pelman 
ranch (PI. I, in pocket). Between Bennett's ranch and the Hitt 
ranch there are various roads, and the exact course that is taken by 
a traveler at any given time is determined by the wells which are in 
repair at that time. In general the routes that remain farthest from 
the mountains are the shortest and smoothest and best adapted for 
automobile travel, but the most western routes pass the most depend- 
able watering places. There is generally an adequate number of 
watering places on these roads, but in 1912, owing to the demoraliza- 
tion of the ranching business that followed a series of dry years, most 
of the Avells were so much neglected that no water could be obtained 
from them. In that year water supplies were available at the Cox 
ranch, the Globe Spring ranch, and the Hitt ranch, but not always at 
Bennett's ranch, the Cox windmills, or the Coe ranches. (See PI. I, 
in pocket, and pp. 249-265.) Water supplies were also available at 
several points between the Hitt ranch and Fort Bliss. At the Hitt 
ranch, now owned by E. O. Lockhausen, there are two wells over 
300 feet deep that yield dependable supplies of good water. (See 
analysis, p. 305.) 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 



249 



Eastern route. — A road leads along the west side of the railroad 
from north of Dog Canyon to El Paso. On this road water supplies 
can be obtained at Orogrande and Newman, and generally at the sec- 
tion houses at Escondida, Turquoise, and Desert. The region on both 
sides of the railroad is very sparsely settled and has only a few widely 
scattered wells. 

Distances between watering places. — The following table gives the 
distances between certain watering places on roads leading from 
Tularosa Basin to Las Cruces and El Paso : 

Distances in miles between watering places on routes to Las Cruces and El Paso. 





d 

bo 
O 

1 

3 

< 


Dog Canyon 
(railway sta- 
tion). 


CO 

a 

02 
O 

.a 

o 

Ph 


03 03 

*a 

a « 


tub 
P 
u 
a. 
S3 
co 
'c3 

"3 


A 
o 

a 

o3 
U 
CO 


A 

a 

3 
u 

CO 

•b 

03 

PQ 


o 

3 

o . 

M a 
o 

CO 


3 

o 


CO 
CD 
W 

s 

O 

CO 
C3 




6 

CO 

03 

Ph 
3 


Tularosa 


14 
6 


11 

20 
25 
28 
42 

39 
c52 
50 
45 
36 
36 
42 

50 
52 

51 

38 
55 

58 

72 

58 
71 
83 
96 
102 


25 
17 
11 



13 
18 
21 
35 

50 
52 
43 
38 
29 
29 
35 

43 
45 

44 

27 
48 

51 
65 

51 
64 
76 
89 
95 


&34 

6 26 

20 

13 



5 

8 

22 

39 
30 
25 
16 
16 
22 

30 
32 

31 


6 56 

6 48 
42 

35 

22 

17 

14 



65 
36 
27 
22 
13 
9 


8 
10 

9 


25 
33 
39 

50 

65 



29 
38 
43 
52 
56 
65 

73 
75 

74 


c38 
c46 
c52 

52 

39 
38 
35 
36 

29 

9 
14 
23 
27 
36 

44 
46 

45 


6 52 

45 

38 

25 
24 
21 
22 

43 

14 

5 



9 

13 

22 

30 
32 

31 


6 50 

6 42 
36 

29 

16 

12 

9 

9 

56 

27 

18 

13 

4 



9 

17 
19 

18 


6 72 

6 64 

58 

51 

38 
33 
30 
16 

81 
52 
43 
38 
29 
25 
16 

9 
6 

8 

d35 

7 



15 

15 
28 
40 
53 
59 


6 86 

6 78 

72 

65 

52 
47 
44 
30 

95 
66 
57 
52 
43 
39 
30 

24 
21 

23 

d50 
21 

15 


30 


6 116 


La Luz 


6 108 


Alamogordo 


102 


Dog Canyon (railway station). . 
Point of Sands 


95 

82 


East McNew ranch (Pelman). . . 
West McNew ranch 


77 
74 


Bennett's ranch (Leatherman). 
Malpais Spring 


60 
125 


Ritch's ranch 


96 


Baird's north well 


87 


Baird's ranch 


82 


North Lucero ranch . . . 


73 


South Lucero ranch. . 


69 


Bennett's ranch (Leatherman). 
Gold Camp 


60 
59 


Thompson ranch 




Steam Pump ranch 


57 


Orogrande 




Cox ranch 


35 

38 
52 

38 
51 
63 
76 

82 


13 

16 
30 

16 
29 
41 
54 
60 


78 

81 
95 

81 

94 

106 

119 

125 


49 

52 
66 

50 
65 
77 
90 
96 


35 

38 
52 

38 
51 
63 
76 

82 


22 

25 
39 

25 
38 
50 
63 
69 


52 


Organ 


59 


Las Cruces 




Globe Sprine 


44 


Coe's home ranch 


31 


Hitt ranch (Lockhausen) a 
Fort Bliss o 


19 
6 


ElPasoa 










a Via Globe Spring and Coe's home ranch. 
6 Via Alamogordo. 



c Via Ritch's tank. 
d Estimated. 



WATERING PLACES. 



The following alphabetically arranged list includes the principal 
watering places used by travelers in the Tularosa Basin. Watering 
places that are outside of this region but situated on routes leading 
from it are not included in this list, but are briefly described in con- 
nection with the route descriptions. 



250 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

One of the principal difficulties in connection with the desert water- 
ing places of this region is the high mineralization of the water, mak- 
ing much of it unfit for human use and some of it undesirable for 
watering horses. This subject is more fully discussed on pages 134r- 
136. Analyses of the water from most of the watering places in this 
list will be found in the tables on pages 268-305. 

The information here given should be used with discretion. From 
time to time watering places are allowed to go to ruin and new wells 
are drilled or new reservoirs are constructed at other places. For 
this reason directions that are given in this paper and are accurate 
for 1911 or 1912, when the investigation was made, need to be 
amended by information obtained from local sources. 

Ancho railroad well. — The old railroad pumping plant, now used 
to supply water for the cement works at Ancho, is situated in a draw 
about 2 miles east-southeast of that town, and some distance north 
of the road leading to Jicarilla. The water from the several wells 
at this point is pumped to Ancho, where it and the water from the 
Bonita pipe line constitute the only supplies. This water is of satis- 
factory quality. (See analyses, p. 268.) 

Baird's ranch and wells. — At the ranch of J. A. Baird, situated 
about 3 miles west of the large alkali flat, not far from the west 
margin of sec. 24, T. 17 S., R. 4 E. (Pis. I and II, in pocket) , there 
is a drilled well 210 feet deep, which has been pumped at the rate 
of about 12 gallons a minute, and which yields water of good quality. 
(See analysis, p. 290.) The equipment includes a windmill, tank, 
and watering trough. 

Two drilled wells with windmills belonging to Mr. Baird are situ- 
ated on the road between Hitch's and Baird's ranches, a distance 
of 5J miles from the latter and less than a mile from the alkali flat. 
(PL II, in pocket.) They are 120 feet deep, have a water level 60 
or 70 feet below the surface, and yield freely, but their water is too 
salty for human use and should not be given to horses except in 
necessity, although it is used for watering range stock. (See analy- 
sis, p. 286.) 

Bar W ranch. — See Carrizozo Spring (p. 251). 

Bennett's ranch. — The ranch of G. A. Bennett, formerly known as 
the Leatherman ranch, is situated near the southwest corner of sec. 
36, T. 20 S., K. 5 E., on the west side of a large inclosure (PL I). 
The water supply is obtained from a drilled well and is of good 
quality (analysis, p. 296). The equipment includes a windmill, tank, 
and watering trough. In 1912 the ranch was uninhabited and the 
pump was out of repair. 

Black Lake ranch.— In the SE. J sec. 8, T. 13 S., R. 8 E., along the 
road leading from Tularosa to the south point of the malpais (Pis. 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 251 

I and II), in an arroyo that leads south westward through the area 
of quartz-sand dunes, is the Black Lake ranch, where there are two 
dug wells with windmills, a surface reservoir, and watering troughs. 
The water, which stands about IT feet below the surface, is rather 
highly mineralized (see analysis, p. 280) , but can be used for watering 
horses and for cooking and drinking if necessary. There is also a 
cistern which generally contains rain water, which is more desirable 
for culinary use. 

Carrizozo Spring. — This spring is situated in the SE. J sec. 26, 
T. 7 S., R. 10 E., a little over 2 miles north of Carrizozo, in an arroyo 
in the midst of a conspicuous grove of trees, on the main road lead- 
ing northward from Carrizozo (Pis. I and VI). This spring, which 
at the time it was visited yielded about 50 gallons a minute of satis- 
factory water (see analysis, p. 300), furnishes the live-stock supply 
and a small irrigation supply for what has until recently been the 
headquarters of the Bar W ranching establishment. Since the town 
of Carrizozo came into existence the spring is no longer important 
as a watering place for travelers, and its use as a camping place is 
discouraged. 

Chaves Spring. — Chaves Spring is situated northeast of Chaves 
Mountain, in the SW. J sec. 23, T. 9 S., R. 10 E. (PL VI, p. 26). 

Ghosa Spring. — The spring at the Chosa ranch is situated in sec. 
5, T. 13 S., R. 9 E., about 7 miles south-southwest of Three Rivers 
depot (Pis. I and II, in pocket). The water, which issues near the 
base of a rather high west-facing bank at the rate of several gallons 
a minute, is very hard but can be used for drinking and culinary 
purposes (analysis, p. 300). Apparently it contains some hydrogen 
sulphide when it emerges from the ground. This spring was formerly 
a well-known watering place, but the road on which it is situated is 
not now an important route of travel. 

Chupadera Spring. — The name Chupadera Spring is applied to 
several springs in or near the Chupadera Plateau. One of these 
springs is situated in a small canyon on the north side of the road 
that leads north of the Cerros Prietos (old craters) to the iron mines, 
about a mile from the east margin of the plateau (PI. I, in pocket). 
This spring was formerly used by travelers as a watering place but 
is not very accessible and is not much used at present. The water 
is said to be of poor quality. 

Coe^s ranches. — The Coe home ranch is situated on the plain be- 
tween the Organ and Franklin mountains, a short distance east of 
the Fillmore Pass. It is on the westernmost route to El Paso, but 
several miles west of the more direct eastern route. The various 
roads are, however, changed from time to time, and are not accu- 
rately shown on Plate I. The water supply at the home ranch is 
derived from a drilled well 349 feet deep, in which the water is 



252 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OP TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

reported to stand 327 feet below the surface. The water is soft. 
(See analyses, p. 298.) 

The North Coe ranch is situated on the plain about 10 miles north- 
northeast of the home ranch and is on the main El Paso road (PL I, 
in pocket). The water supply is obtained from a drilled well re- 
ported to be 180 feet deep and to have a water level 142 feet below 
the surface. The water is of good quality. 

The South Coe ranch is situated south of the drainage divide, 
about 4 miles north of the Texas line, and at the point where the 
two El Paso roads meet (PI. I). The well at this place is reported 
to be about 350 feet deep, to have a water level 328 feet below the sur- 
face, and to yield soft water. 

In 1912 none of the Coe ranches could be depended on for water, 
but supplies can usually be obtained at the home ranch and the north 
ranch. 

Cooper's ranch. — On the ranch of James Cooper, which is situ- 
ated 2J miles west-southwest of Ancho, there are two wells with 
windmills, and two large earth reservoirs that are filled in part with 
flood waters. The analysis of the water from one of the wells is 
given on page 268. 

Cox ranch and wells. — The headquarters of the W. W. Cox ranch- 
ing establishment, often called the San Agustin ranch, is situated 
near the north end of the Organ Range, 4 or 5 miles southeast of San 
Agustin Peak. It is at a prominent cliff and terrace feature, a short 
distance above the desert flat, and in plain view from the east and 
north. It is on the direct road from Orogrande to Organ and can 
be reached from the El Paso routes by branch roads not shown on 
the map, Plate I. At this ranch there is a reliable water supply. 

There are also several wells with windmills on the plain east of 
the headquarters ranch. Two drilled wells at the point indicated in 
Plate I as the Cox windmills have been much used by travelers, but 
in 1912 were out of repair and furnished no supply. (See also 
Globe Spring ranch, Steam-pump ranch, and Thompson ranch.) 

Coyote Springs. — Upper Coyote Spring is a Bar W watering 
place, situated in the SW. J sec. 11, T. 8 S., R. 10 E., only a mile or 
two south of Carrizozo (Pis. I and VI). It no longer has the im- 
portance that it once possessed but is still used to some extent by 
travelers approaching Carrizozo from a southerly direction. The 
water is of satisfactory quality. (See analysis, p. 300.) 

Lower Coyote Spring is situated near the north margin of sec. 8, T. 
8 S., R. 10 E., about 3 miles west-northwest of the upper spring, and 
another spring is situated near the northeast corner of sec. 5, T. 8 
S., R. 10 E., nearly a mile north-northeast of Lower Coyote Spring 
proper. Both springs issue along a west-facing escarpment formed 



WATERING PLACES ON KOUTES OF TRAVEL. 253 

by ledges of limestone and sandstone (PL VI, p. 26). Their yield 
is small, and they are of no consequence except as range watering 
places. 

Dowi's well. — See Gran Quivira (p. 255). 

Dripping Spring. — According to the best information obtainable, 
Dripping Spring is situated about three-fourths of a mile south of 
the Lava Gap road, and about 1J miles east of the summit of this 
gap. It was formerly used by travelers, but at present yields little 
water and is seldom visited. 

Duck Lake is situated near the northwestern extremity of the 
younger lava bed, only a short distance west of J. B. French's ranch 
(Pis. I, in pocket, and VI, p. 26). It is a shallow natural depres- 
sion that contains surface water for some time after each rainy 
season, but has lost most of its importance as a watering place for 
travelers since French's well was sunk. 

Estey, a mining camp, at present uninhabited except for a watch- 
man, is situated on sees. 25 and 36, T. 8 S., R. 6 E., in the eastern foot- 
hills of the Oscuro Mountains (Pis. I and VI). It is in a conspicu- 
ous position and from the east can be seen and recognized for many 
miles. The water supply at this place is obtained through a gravity 
pipe line from a small spring about 2-| miles west of the buildings. 
The water is hard and ferruginous, but fairly satisfactory for drink- 
ing and for culinary use. (See analyses, p. 300.) 

Fleets ranches. — The home ranch of W. N\ Fleck is 4 miles east 
of the depot at Orogrande and is not on any well-traveled route. (PI. 
I.) The water supply is obtained from a well reported to be 540 
feet deep with a water level probably not less than 400 feet below the 
surface. The equipment includes windmill, gasoline engine, two 
steel tanks, and watering troughs. The water is somewhat salty, but 
can be given to horses and used for drinking and cooking. 

Most of the other wells east of the railroad and south of Turquoise 
that are shown on Plate I belong to W. N. Fleck. The Wilde well, 
5 miles north of the home ranch (PI. I), is reported to be 526 feet 
deep and to have a water level 244 feet below the surface. In 1912 it 
was out of repair and did not furnish a supply. The water is salty 
but is used for live stock. (See analysis, p. 298.) 

Flowing wells. — See Shoemaker's flowing wells (p. 263). 

Frenches ranch near Ancho (J. B. French). — The old J. B. French 
home ranch is situated between Ancho and Coyote, nearly a mile 
west of the railroad. It is 6 miles southwest of Ancho on the road 
leading from that town to Eed Lake. (PL I.) The water supply 
is derived from a 6-inch cased well, 166 feet deep, ending in sand- 
stone, and tested at 22 gallons a minute. It is hard but otherwise 
of satisfactory quality. (See analysis, p. 268.) 



254 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

French's ranch (near Duck Lake). — A ranch belonging to J. B. 
French is situated in a rincon at the northwestern extremity of the 
younger lava bed, 2J miles northwest of the crater and a short dis- 
tance east of Duck Lake. It is immediately south of the road that 
leads around the north edge of the lava (Pis. I and VI). The water 
is obtained by means of a windmill from a combination dug and 
drilled well about 102 feet deep. The yield of the well is not great, 
but a considerable quantity of water is stored in the underground 
openings and in a large well-constructed surface reservoir. The 
water is of satisfactory quality. (See analysis, p. 268.) 

Frenches ranch (Horace French). — The ranch owned by Horace 
French is situated on the east side of the railroad between Ancho and 
the J. B. French home ranch. It is nearly a half mile from the rail- 
road culvert through which the wagon road passes, and this culvert 
is 2-J miles northeast of the J. B. French ranch, one-half mile north- 
east of Largo switch, and 4 miles southwest of Ancho (PL I). The 
water supply is obtained from a 6-inch cased well that is reported to 
be 150 feet deep and to have a maximum yield of 8 gallons a minute. 
The water is of satisfactory quality. (See analyses, p. 268.) 

Gallacher's ranch. — See Indian tank (p. 256). 

George's ranch. — The ranch of Walter George is situated on the 
Lava Gap road, about 6 miles from James Gililland's ranch and a 
somewhat less distance from the gap. At this ranch there is a dug 
well sunk into limestone and shale to a depth of about 40 feet, and 
also an earth reservoir that receives flood waters. The well water is 
reported to be of fairly good quality for drinking and culinary uses. 
The water level fluctuates and in dry seasons the yield is small. The 
ranch is extensively used by travelers as a watering place. 

Gililland's ranch. — The ranch of James R. Gililland is situated 
about 2 miles west and one- fourth mile south of the northeast cor- 
ner of T. 11 S., R. 6 E., near the base of the slope that projects from 
the San Andreas Mountains. (Pis. I and VI.) A dug well about 50 
feet deep yields water which, undiluted, is too salty for human use 
and undesirable for watering stock (see analyses, p. 278), but which 
is, so far as possible, mixed with flood waters stored in an earth reser- 
voir. In spite of the poor quality of the supply this ranch is ex- 
tensively used by travelers on the Lava Gap route for watering 
horses. 

A similar well and reservoir will be found at the ranch of W. F. 
Gililland, about 4 miles south-southwest of James Gililland's ranch. 
Still farther south is a watering place belonging to Thomas McDon- 
ald and supplied by a pipe line leading from a spring nearer the 
mountains. 

Globe Spring ranch. — The Globe Spring ranch, which is one of 
W. W. Cox's range watering places, is situated on Soledad Arroyo 



WATERING PLACES ON" ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 255 

near the foot of the Organ Mountains, above the desert flat, and not 
far from the middle of the west margin of T. 23 S., E. 5 E. (PL I). 
It is on the westernmost route to El Paso and can be reached by a 
detour of several miles from the more easterly* valley road, the 
branch roads not being shown on the map. Water is led through a 
pipe line from a spring nearer the mountains to the ranch house, 
where it flows by gravity into a steel tank at the rate of about 2 gal- 
lons a minute. The water is soft and otherwise of good quality. (See 
analysis, p. 300.) Spring water also occurs farther up Soledad Ar- 
royo. The original Globe Spring was a short distance north of the 
present supply. 

Gold Camp. — About 5 miles northeast of San Agustin Peak is Gold 
Camp. It is less than a mile north of the north road from Ben- 
nett's ranch to Organ, from which it is easily reached. (See PL I.) 
It stands high above the desert plain and in full view from the east, 
and it is reported to have a reliable supply of good water. 

Gran Quivira. — The Gran Quivira house and well are situated on 
or near sec. 31, T. 1 N., R. 8 E., about one mile west-northwest of 
the principal ruins and about the same distance east of the edge 
of the Chupadera Plateau (PL I). They are on a relatively low, 
sandy, cedar-covered tract and can not be seen from a great distance. 
The ruins on the rocky ridge just east are, however, conspicuous. 
The well in use is a dug hole approximately 80 feet deep, with a 
water level 73 feet below the surface. It yields a very small supply 
of water that is comparatively soft (see analysis, p. 268), but has 
at times become filthy through neglect. There are several abandoned 
wells at the same place. Since this paper was written a well has been 
drilled by C. Spence a short distance west of the Gran Quivira ranch. 

Gray's ranch. — The Al. Gray ranch, which is in the NE. J sec. 20, 
T. 13 S., R. 9 E. (Pis. I and II), has several shallow wells. The well 
now in use is a dug hole in which water stands 12J feet below the 
surface. It is equipped with windmill, reservoir, and watering 
trough. The water is highly mineralized, but can be used for drink- 
ing and cooking. (See analysis, p. 280.) 

Hembrillo Spring. — See Ritch's ranches (p. 261) and Plate I (in 
pocket). 

Henderson ranches. — Two old watering places, formerly controlled 
by George Henderson but now abandoned, are situated a few miles 
west of Salt Creek, one on or near the S. \ sec. 14, T. 13 S., R. 5 E., 
and the other a little over \\ miles farther southwest (Pis. I and II.). 
At the north ranch, where the water in a shallow well is reported 
to have been too salty for use, a large earth reservoir was constructed. 
At the south ranch there is a dug well with water 71 feet below the 
surface. In 1911 neither of these places could be relied on for a 
water supply. 



'-'■ 



256 GEOLOGY AND WATER BESOUECES OF TULAEOSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

Hunter ranches. — The two Hunter ranches are situated a few 
miles west of the alkali flats and a few miles north of the main road 
between Tularosa and Sulphur Canyon. The ranch of Mark Hunter 
is on or near sec. 17, T. 14 S., K. 5 E., and that of William Hunter is 
on the S. \ sec. 19, in the same township, a distance of \\ miles south- 
southwest of Mark Hunter's ranch. Several watering places south 
of the white sands formerly known as Hunter ranches are described 
under " McNew's ranches" and "Point of Sands." (See Pis. I 
and II.) 

The wiell at Mark Hunter's ranch is dug to a depth of about 70 
feet, has a water level 54 feet below the surface, and yields water 
which is too salty for human use and undesirable for stock use. ( See 
analysis, p. 280.) This supply is supplemented by flood water that 
is stored in an earth reservoir, and by rain or other soft water for 
household use that is stored in a cistern. 

At William Hunter's ranch there is a dug well with water stand- 
ing 53 feet below the surface. 

/ Bar X ranch. — The I Bar X ranch is situated on the E. \ sec. 
25, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., near the northern extremity of the Godfrey Hills, 
and about 6 miles east-northeast of Oscuro (Pis. I and VI). It is 
on the road that leads from Three Rivers to Carrizozo by way of the 
east side of the Godfrey Hills. There are several shallow wells at 
this ranch, but travelers can most conveniently obtain water for 
themselves at the gravity ditch near the road, and for their horses 
at the corral supplied from this ditch. The yield of the ditch is 
about 50 gallons a minute; the water is of good quality. (See an- 
alysis, p. 300.) 

Indian tank. — This watering place is situated at the ranch of 
Gallacher Bros., near the east end of the older lava bed, and less 
than 2 miles north of the younger lava bed (PL I). It consists of 
a small gully in the lava, across which a substantial dam has been 
constructed. It is filled with surface water in the rainy season, but 
its supply may fail in dry seasons. The water is, of course, much 
softer than the well water of the region. 

Iron mines. — The so-called iron mines were not visited, but are 
reported to be situated on the road between Indian tank and Hanson- 
berg, approximately 12 miles from Indian tank. At the iron mines 
water is stored in a tank, but the supply may fail in dry seasons. 

Jackson ranches. — Three old range watering places, known as the 
Jakson ranches but now controlled by Thomas McDonald are found 
west of Salt Creek. (See Pis. I and II.) 

The " home ranch " is situated on or near the SW. J sec. 25, T. 12 
S., R. 5 E., less than 2 miles from Salt Creek. Its water supply is 
derived from two dug wells that have a water level about 94 feet 
below the surface. The water is highly mineralized but can with 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 257 

caution be used for watering horses and in necessity for drinking. 
(See analysis, p. 280.) The equipment includes two windmills, a 
surface reservoir, and watering troughs. 

Another " Jackson ranch " is situated about 4^ miles south-south- 
west of the " home ranch," on or near the NE. \ sec. 16, T. 13 S., R. 
5 E. At this point there is a 6-inch drilled well said to be about 280 
feet deep, but with a water level less than 50 feet below the surface. 
The water is highly mineralized but can be used. 

The third " Jackson ranch," which is situated 3 miles south-south- 
west of the second ranch, near the north margin of sec. 32, T. 13 S., 
R. 5 E., had no available water supply in 1911, but it has a drilled 
well 204 feet deep which when in repair is said to yield the best 
water of any well in this locality. 

Jake's Spring. — Near the west margin of sec. 10, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., 
a little over half a mile south-southeast of the section house (Pis. I 
and VI), is Jake's Spring, which yields water of fair quality (anal- 
ysis, p. 300) at the rate of several gallons a minute. 

At the section house there is a tunnel in the sandstone east of 
the railroad from which water flows at the rate of a few gallons a 
minute. This water is led across the right of way to a small reser- 
voir, which is the only watering place along the road between Oscuro 
and Polly. The water is similar in mineral character to that from 
the spring and can be used for all purposes. (See analysis, p. 300.) 
Drinking supplies should be taken directly from the tunnel. 

Jicarilla. — The small mining town of Jicarilla is supplied with 
water conducted through a pipe line from a drilled well situ- 
ated nearly 2 miles farther up the gulch. This well, which is 402 
feet deep, yields an ample supply of good water. (See analysis, 
p. 175.) 

Leatherman raneh. — See Bennett's ranch (p. 250). 

Lee's ranch (James Lee). — The ranch of James Lee is near the 
west margin of the younger lava bed, somewhat over half a mile 
north of the upper crossing, near the northeast corner of sec. 19, 
T. 8 S., R. 9 E. (Pis. I and VI). The well at this ranch was dug to 
a depth of 104 feet, below "which a 6-inch hole was drilled to a total 
depth of 152 feet. The water level is normally about 90 feet below 
the surface and is said to be lowered about 10 feet when the well 
is pumped at a rate of about 5 gallons a minute. The equipment 
includes windmill, steel tank, and watering troughs. The water is 
hard but fairly satisfactory for drinking and cooking. (See analy- 
sis, p. 270.) 

Lee^s ranch (Oliver Lee). — The home ranch of Oliver Lee is near 
the south end of the Sacramento Mountains and Mr. Lee has several 
other watering places in the same region. The well at his valley 

48731°— wsp 343—15 17 



258 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

ranch, 4| miles north of the Wilde well (PI. I), is 130 feet deep and 
3 T ields water of good quality. (See analysis, p. 296.) The equipment 
includes windmill, gasoline engine, tank, and watering troughs. 

Lomitas Springs. — The springs at the Lomitas ranch are situated 
near the south margin of sees. 3 and 4, T. 14 S., R. 9 E., along the 
road between Tularosa and the south point of the malpais. (Pis. I 
and II.) The water, which is used for range stock and also to ir- 
rigate a small field, is very hard but can be used for drinking and 
culinary purposes. (See^ analysis, p. 300.) 

Lower Coyote Spring. — "See Coyote Springs (p. 252). 

Lower Willow Spring. — See Willow Springs (p. 265). 

Lucero ranches. — The North Lucero ranch, situated about one- 
half mile west of the alkali flat, near the north margin of sec. 5, T. 
19 S., R. 5 E. (Pis. I and II), has two dug wells about 65 feet deep, 
which yield water that is too salty for human use and that should 
be given to horses with caution. (See analysis, p. 296.) 

The South Lucero ranch, situated 4 miles farther south-southeast, 
and about 2 miles southwest of the south end of the large alkali flat 
(Pis. I and II), has a drilled well, about 190 feet deep, that yields 
water of good quality. (See analysis, p. 296.) 

Lumbley' > s ranches. — See Black Lake (p. 250) and Lomitas Springs, 
above. 

McDonalds ranch {Thomas McDonald). — The ranch of Thomas 
McDonald is in Mockingbird Gap, along the main road between 
Oscuro and Murray, about 3J miles from Murray (PI. I). The 
water supply is obtained from two dug wells that are about 50 feet 
deep and have a water level 21 feet below the surface. The supply 
is reported to be abundant and permanent. The equipment includes 
windmills, horsepower, reservoir, and watering trough. The water 
is of fairly satisfactory quality. (See also Jackson ranches and 
Gililland's ranch.) 

McDonalds tank. — A large earth reservoir owned by Thomas Mc- 
Donald is located on the south side of the main road from Oscuro to 
Murray, 4J miles from McDonald's ranch and the same distance 
from the point where the Murray road is joined by the road from 
Estey (PI. I). This reservoir is situated in a draw that leads far- 
ther northwest between the Oscuro and Little Burro mountains. Like 
all reservoirs supplied with flood waters, it is likely to be empty in 
dry seasons. The water is satisfactory for stock use but should, so 
far as possible, be avoided for culinary use and should always be 
boiled before it is used by man for drinking. 

McNew's ranches. — Two ranches owned by W. H. McNew are 
situated on the road leading from Alamogordo to Las Cruces and El 
Paso. The first of these ranches reached in going southwest of the 
Point of Sands is in or near the SW. \ sec. 5, T. 19 S., R. 7 E., 
about 1£ miles from the edge of the white sands; the second is 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 259 

2J miles farther west-southwest and a little nearer the white sands. 
(See Pis. I and II.) 

The first ranch has a dug well which is about 60 feet deep, has a 
water level 36 feet below the surface, and yields a supply that is 
highly mineralized but is used for watering live stock. (See analy- 
sis, p. 296.) 

The second ranch has two wells and two windmills. The dug well 
is about TO feet deep, has a water level 47 feet below the surface, and 
is said to yield mineralized water. The drilled well is reported to 
be about 250 feet deep and yields water that is highly mineralized 
but is used for drinking. (See analysis, p. 296.) 

Malpais Spring. — At the edge of the younger lava bed, less than 2 
miles northwest of its south point, near the west margin of sec. 9, T. 
12 S., R. 7 E., on one of the main roads that connects the east and 
west sides of Tularosa Basin (Pis. I and II) is Malpais Spring. 
The water, which issues directly from a crevice in the lava at the rate 
of several second-feet, is salty and otherwise highly mineralized (see 
analysis, p. 300) and is unfit for human use, except in necessity, and 
should be given to horses with caution. The poor quality of both 
water and grass make this vicinity undesirable as a camping place. 

Mayes^s ranch. — The old Andy Mayes ranch, on the west side of 
the malpais, is now owned by Fred Roberts. (See Robert's ranch, 
p. 262.) 

Milagro Spring.— In the NW. i sec. 32, T. 9 S., R. 9 E., about 1J 
miles east-northeast of Oscuro, in a ravine that cuts through the 
southern part of Milagro Hill (Pis. I and VI), is a Bar W watering 
place called Milagro Spring. The water is of satisfactory quality 
(see analysis, p. 300) and issues perennially in generous quantity. 
The vicinity of this spring has long been used as a camping place. 

Mills ranch.— The ranch of A. C. Mills is in sec. 13, T. 9 S., 
R. 6 E., near an arroyo in the foothills east of Oscuro, approximately 
4 miles south of Estey and 2 miles north (by air line) of the main 
road to Murray (Pis. I and VI). It is on a road that connects Estey 
with the Murray Road, and it can also be reached by a branch from 
the road that runs from the lower crossing to Estey. The water sup- 
ply is obtained from a drilled well 30 feet deep that has a water level 
17 feet below the surface and is reported to have a tested yield of 
about 13 gallons per minute. The water is hard but otherwise of 
satisfactory quality. (See analysis, p. 276.) 

Moor Spring. — See Ritch's ranches (p. 261) and Plate I (in pocket). 

Mound Springs. — A group of small springs issue from conspicuous 
mounds in sec. 23, T. 10 S., R. 6 E., and adjacent sections. (See Pis. I 
and VI, fig. 9, and p. 52.) Several of these springs have been de- 
veloped as range watering places and furnish a highly mineralized 
water (see analysis, p. 300) that can with caution be given to horses 



260 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OP TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

and can in necessity be used for drinking. These springs form an 
old and well-known landmark and were once an important camping 
place. 

Murray. — At the north end of the San Andreas Mountains, a 
short distance south of the northeast corner of the unsurveyed T. 9 S., 
R. 4 E., is Murray, a post office and small mining camp, which is 
important as a halfway point on the road between Oscuro and the 
.Rio Grande. The water supply is obtained from the drilled well 
of J. P. Murray, said to be about 165 feet deep. The water is reported 
to be of fairly good quality and to be yielded freely. 

Nogal Spring. — See Walnut (p. 264). 

Orogrande. — The supply at Orogrande is obtained through a pipe 
line from the Sacramento River (pp. 227, 228). The water is of good 
quality. (See analysis, p. 302.) 

Parker Lake. — A shallow natural depression in the gypseous plain 
5 miles south of Bennett's ranch, near the foot of the debris slope 
adjacent to the San Andreas Range (PL I) is Parker Lake, which 
has had some importance as a watering place, but like other lakes 
of the region is frequently empty in dry seasons. 

Pelman well. — See McNew's ranches (p. 258). 

Phillips Spring is a reliable watering place on or near the SW. 
J sec. 34, T. 9 S., R. 8 E., along the road leading from Oscuro to the 
lower crossing of the malpais. (Pis. I and VI.) It yields water of 
satisfactory quality (see analysis, p. 300), at the rate of about 3 gal- 
lons a minute. 

Phillips well. — The well of E. E. Phillips is about 9 miles west of 
the younger crater, 2 miles west of the west margin of the older lava 
bed, and between 3 and 4 miles south-southwest of the Cerros Prietos, 
or old craters. ( See PL I. ) It is at the foot of a low westward-facing 
cliff in a draw that leads southwestward. This well is 732 feet deep 
and is said to have a water level about 680 feet below the surface. 
The water is hard but otherwise fairly satisfactory. (See analysis, 
p. 268.) At the time the locality was visited no pump had been in- 
stalled, and the well could not be depended on for a water supply. 

Point of Sands. — At the southeast margin of the white sands, near 
the southwest corner of sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 7 E., on the main road 
from Alamogordo (Pis. I and II), is a shallow dug well, with a 
windmill, two steel tanks, and a watering trough owned by W. H. 
McNew, and extensively used by travelers. The water, which stands 
only 8 feet below the surface, is highly charged with sulphates (see 
analysis, p. 294), but is satisfactory for watering horses and can 
with caution be used for drinking and cooking. 

Pramberg's well. — The well and windmill of John Pramberg are 
situated near the center of sec. 2, T. 7 S., R. 10 E., along the road 
between Carrizozo and the north end of the younger lava bed. (See 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OP TRAVEL. 261 

Pis. I and VI.) This well, which was only recently sunk and is 
not extensively used by travelers, is partly dug and partly drilled, 
its total depth being 128 feet. It yields a small supply of soft, sul- 
phate water that is fairly satisfactory for drinking. (See analysis, 
p. 270.) 

Purday^s ranch. — The house and well of H. W. Purday are situ- 
ated in an arroyo near the northwest corner of the NE. \ sec. 28, T. 
14 S., R. 9 E., on the main road leading from Tularosa to Sulphur 
Canyon. (See Pis. I and II.) The well is dug about 35 feet deep, 
the water standing about 29 feet below the surface. It is pumped by 
windmill and small gasoline engine and furnshes a supply of hard 
but otherwise satisfactory water. (See analysis, p. 282.) This is an 
important watering place, as it is practically the last point along the 
road before reaching Stone's ranch that satisfactory drinking water 
can be obtained. 

Red Canyon ranch. — See Schole's ranch and well (p. 262). 

Red Lake. — One of the Bar W watering places, called Red Lake, 
is in or near the S. \ sec. 22, in the unsurveyed T. 5 S., R. 10 E., 
about 3 miles north and 3 miles west of Coyote station. It is on the 
road leading from Carrizozo to Gran Quivira, and also on the road 
between Ancho and the north end of the younger lava bed. (PI. I.) 
It occupies a natural depression in an open draw that heads farther 
northeast and supplies it with flood waters in the rainy season. The 
water is excellent for live stock but should be boiled before it is used 
for drinking by man. This depression is of such extent that it fre- 
quently holds water from one rainy season to another, but in dry 
years it is likely to be empty in the spring. It is an important 
watering place, especially for persons going to Estancia Valley by 
way of Gran Quivira. 

Ritcfts ranches. — The home ranch of W. L. Ritch is in the NW. £ 
sec. 19, T. 15 S., R. 5 E., a distance of 1^ miles west of the alkali flat 
and 4 miles south of the main road between Tularosa and Sulphur 
Canyon (Pis. I and II). At this ranch there is a dug well that is 
about 75 feet deep, has a water level 53 feet below the surface, and 
an abundant supply of water. The water is salty (see analysis, 
p. 282) but is used for watering live stock. It should not be used by 
man except in necessity. 

Another dug well belonging to Mr. Ritch is situated 4 miles north 
of the home ranch, in the SE. J sec. 31, T. 14 S., R. 5 E., along the 
main Sulphur Canyon road (Pis. I and II), but in 1911 this well 
was out of repair and afforded no supply. The water level is here 34 
feet below the surface, and the water is reported to be unfit for 
human use, though it is used for watering horses. 

Mention should also be made of Hembrillo Spring, which is situ- 
ated in the N. \ sec. 12, T. 16 S., R. 3 E., southwest of Ritch 's ranch 



262 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

and near the edge of the mountains, and the spring at the Moor ranch, 
now owned by Mr. Ritch, which is situated at the edge of the moun- 
tains on sec. 2, T. 15 S., R. 4 E. (See PL I.) 

Ritch^s tank. — An earth reservoir called Ritch's tank lies on the 
road between Tularosa and Sulphur Canyon, west of the white sands 
and near the west margin of the alkali flats, in the SW. £ sec. 33, T. 
14 S., R. 5 E. (Pis. I and II). As its supply is derived from flood 
waters it is likely to fail in dry seasons. The water is softer than 
the well water of the region but should be boiled before it is used 
for drinking. 

Roberts ranch. — The ranch of Fred. Roberts is situated less than 
a mile from the west margin of the lava, midway between the lower 
crossing and Mound Springs (Pis. I and VI). The well at this 
ranch is 72 feet deep and yields water that can be given to horses 
but is undesirable for drinking or cooking. (See analysis, p. 278.) 
Softer water can generally be obtained from a rain-water cistern. 

Salt Creek. — A small stream of clear, cool water that looks very 
attractive to a thirsty wayfarer flows through T. 11 S., R. 6 E., and 
T. 12 S., R. 6 E. (Pis. I and II). It is, however, so heavily impreg- 
nated with salt that it is unfit for use by man or beast (see analysis, 
p. 302), although it may have commercial value on account of its 
large content of sodium chloride. 

San Agustin ranch. — See Cox ranch and wells (p. 252). 

San Nicolas Spring. — In a canyon at the east edge of the San 
Andreas Mountains, in the SW. i sec. 4, T. 20 S., R. 5 E. (PI. I), 
is a watering place that was reached from the old salt road by the 
Mexicans long ago (PI. V, p. 16), but is not now near any well- 
traveled route. 

Schole's ranch and well. — The ranch of Fred. Schole, known as the 
Red Canyon ranch, is reported to be approximately 12 miles north 
of Estey, on the old mail route that at one time passed over the upper 
crossing and through the Red Canyon. It is still a convenient wa- 
tering place for any one taking the Red Canyon route. The water 
is reported to stand 15 feet below the surface in red beds, and to 
be led to the surface at a lower level. 

Another of Mr. Schole's wells that is a convenient watering place 
is situated on the road leading from the north end of the malpais to 
Ozanne Spring, about 10 miles from the spring. 

Serano tank. — About midway between Duck Lake and the Cerros 
Prietos (old craters), on the road between Duck Lake and Chupa- 
dera Spring (PL I), is Serano tank. It is on the old lava bed and 
occupies a natural cleft in the rock similar to Indian tank, but it is 
smaller, less well constructed, and probably empty during longer 
periods. 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 263 

7X7 ranch, — The old 7X7 ranch, now belonging to the Bar W 
ranching establishment, is situated a short distance from the west 
margin of the lava, nearly midway between the upper and lower 
crossings, in the SE. % sec. 5, T. 9 S., E. 8 E. (Pis. I and VI). It is 
on the road from the upper crossing to Mockingbird Gap and also on 
the road from the lower crossing to Red Canyon and Ozanne. The 
water supply at this ranch is obtained from a 6-inch drilled well 
that is reported to be 252 feet deep, to have a head 180 feet below 
the surface, and to have been tested at 65 gallons a minute. The 
water is stored in a large surface reservoir, from which it is delivered 
to watering troughs. It is used for live stock but is too highly 
mineralized to be satisfactory for human use. (See analysis, p. 276.) 
A supply of better water is usually kept at the ranch for domestic use. 

Shoemaker's flowing wells. — The two flowing wells of D. W. Shoe- 
maker are situated near the southwest corner of the NW. J sec. 1, T. 15 
S., R. 8 E., in an arroyo leading into the white sands (Pis. I and II). 
They are, respectively, about one-half inch and 2 inches in diameter 
and are reported to be about 40 feet deep. The larger well yields 
blightly less than 3 gallons a minute by natural flow from a pipe 
discharging 9 feet above the surface. The water is rather highly 
mineralized, but satisfactory for drinking and for culinary use. (See 
analysis, p. 284.) Several other watering places will be found in this 
locality. 

Soledad Spring. — See Globe Spring ranch (p. 254) . 

Steam-pump ranch. — The ranch of W. W. Cox, known as the 
Steam-pump ranch, is situated in a conspicuous position on the 
high bench between the San Andreas and Organ ranges. It is be- 
tween the two roads that lead from Bennett's ranch to Organ and is 
easily reached from either of these roads (PL I). At this ranch 
there is a well which is reported to be dug to a depth of about 40 
feet and drilled from the 40-foot level to a depth of about 200 feet. 
It is pumped by both windmill and gasoline engine and yields an 
adequate supply of water of satisfactory quality. There is also a 
water supply at a mine a short distance west of this ranch. 

Stone^s ranch. — An important watering place for travelers is 
Stone's ranch, situated on the Sulphur Canyon road on or near sec. 2 
of the fractional T. 15 S., R. 3 E. The supply comes from a per- 
manent mountain spring and is reported to be good water. 

Thompson ranch. — The Thompson ranch, which now belongs to 
W. W. Cox, but is practically abandoned, is situated on the west 
side of a small mountain in the reentrant between the San Andreas 
and Organ ranges, and only 2^ miles from San Agustin Peak. It 
is on the north road from Bennett's ranch to Organ, less than 2 
miles from the junction with the south road (PL I). At this place 
there is a dug well, 6 feet square and cased with lumber, in which 



264 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES^ OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

the water stands about 17 feet below the surface. The pump and 
windmill are out of repair, but water for horses can be drawn with a 
bucket. 

Three Rivers. — There are no wells at the railroad station of Three 
Rivers (Pis. I and II), but culinary supplies are obtained from the 
railroad cistern that is filled with Bonita pipe-line water shipped 
thither on tank cars, and live-stock supplies are obtained from Three 
Rivers water that is led to the station in a ditch. In the valley of 
Three Rivers, from a short distance above the station to the head 
Avaters of the main branch and Indian Creek there are numerous 
springs and shallow wells at which good water can be obtained. 
Water of satisfactory quality will also be found at several wells, 
springs, and gravity ditches along the road between Three Rivers and 
the I Bar X ranch. 

Thurgood?s ranch. — The ranch of E. E. Thurgood is situated about 
1 mile south of the Lava Gap road, and only a short distance east 
of the summit of the gap. On account of its distance from the main 
road it is not generally used by travelers as a watering place. The 
water supply is obtained from two wells, one a dug well 50 feet deep 
reported to yield about 5 gallons a minute, and the other a drilled 
well 199 feet deep reported to yield 13 gallons a minute. The water 
is considered fairly good. 

Upper Coyote Spring. — See Coyote Springs (p. 252). 

Upper Willow Spring. — See Willow Springs (p. 265). 

Walnut. — This is a station on the branch railroad leading east 
from Carrizozo. (See Pis. I and VI.) Water comes to the surface at 
several points in Nogal Arroyo near this station, and there are several 
ranches in the vicinity which have shallow wells that yield satisfac- 
tory water. (See analyses of water from wells on the Vega ranches, 
pp. 274, 276.) 

Warden's ranch. — The water supply at Warden's ranch, which is in 
the SE. J sec. 17, T. 4 S., R. 11 E., about 4 miles west-northwest of 
Ancho (PI. I), is derived from two drilled wells, one 232 feet and the 
other 196 feet deep, both pumped by windmills. Their yield is ample 
for stock, and the water, except for its hardness, is fairly satisfactory 
for domestic use. An analysis of the water from the upper well is 
given on page 268. A pipe line nearly 5 miles long extends north- 
westward from the ranch. (See PI. I.) 

Whiteoahs. — The village of Whiteoaks is on the east side of Bax- 
ter Mountain, near the south end of the fractional T. 6 S., R. 12 E., 
and midway between Carrizozo and Jicarilla (Pis. I and VI). At 
this place there are several dug and bored wells which yield highly 
mineralized water. Domestic supplies are obtained chiefly from 
rain-water cisterns. 



AKALYSES. 265 

Whitewater Spring. — This spring, situated in the white sands near 
the Point of Sands well, is no longer used by travelers. 

"Wilde well. — See Fleck's ranches (p. 253). 

Willow Springs. — Lower Willow Spring, which is a Bar W ranch 
watering place, is situated in theNW. % sec. 29, T. 8 S., R. 9 E., lead- 
ing to the upper crossing of the malpais, and about half a mile from it 
(Pis. I and VI). The water, which issues from the base of a low 
bank or cliff and flows through a pipe to a watering trough at a rate 
of perhaps 2 gallons a minute, is of fairly satisfactory quality for 
drinking and domestic use. (See analyses, p. 300.) A smaller spring 
of the same type occurs nearly one-quarter mile north-northeast of 
the main spring. 

From Lower Willow Spring a pipe line leads across the lava to a 
cement reservoir that supplies a watering trough about a mile below 
the west end of the upper crossing. (See PL VI.) It is in use only 
in certain seasons. 

Upper Willow Spring is situated near the south margin of sec. 35, 
T. 8 S., E. 10 E., on the east side of Willow Hill and about 10 miles 
from the lower spring. 

ANALYSES. 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 
By R. F. Haee. 

The water analyses were made in the following manner: The total 
solids were determined by evaporating measured amounts of water to 
dryness and drying the residue for one hour at 110° C. and the 
precipitate of calcium was titrated with a standard solution of 
potassium permanganate. Magnesium was precipitated with sodium 
phosphate and weighed as the pyrophosphate. The content of sodium 
and potassium was not determined directly, but was calculated from 
the amount of the acid radicles greater than that necessary to com- 
bine with calcium and magnesium. Carbonates were determined by 
titration with N/20 potassium bisulphate ; this procedure gives both 
the carbonate and bicarbonate radicles, but they are both reported in 
the tables as carbonates (C0 3 ). The sulphates were precipitated 
with barium chloride and weighed as barium sulphate. Chlorine 
was determined volumetrically with N/30 silver nitrate. Nitrogen as 
nitrates, wherever estimated, was determined by the Kjeldahl method 
modified to include nitrates. 

In examining the soil samples 50 grams of the air-dried soil was 
added to 500 cubic centimeters of distilled water, the mixture was 
thoroughly agitated, allowed to stand over night, and filtered. Por- 
tions of this nitrate were analyzed in the same manner as the water 
samples. 



266 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 

The calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorides, sulphates, and car- 
bonates that constitute the soluble solids of the waters and soils are in 
combination to form salts. The last three, being acid constituents, 
are combined with the first three, which are basic constituents. The 
chemist must, however, content himself with determining the amounts 
of these constituents, as no methods are known by which he can 
separate all the salts from one another as they occur in the solids. 
To judge the effect of these constituents on the soil used for agri- 
culture, or on the waters for some uses, it is important to know as 
nearly as possible what salts are formed in their combinations. If 
the carbonates combine with calcium, for example, a salt is formed 
that is harmless for agriculture but constitutes temporary hardness 
in waters for domestic use. If, on the other hand, they are com- 
bined with sodium, they form a salt which constitutes " black alkali," 
but which in small amounts is desirable or unobjectionable in waters 
for domestic use. 

With a knowledge of the properties of the salts that are possible 
from the constituents found and of the known laws of chemical 
affinity, it is possible to judge fairly well the proper grouping of 
these radicles in the formation of salts. The simplest possible combi- 
nation is one in which only three salts are formed. Theoretically 
nine salts are possible in a mixture containing the three acids and 
three bases. These are calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium 
chloride, magnesium carbonate, magnesium sulphate, magnesium 
chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate, and sodium chloride. 
Moreover, the three carbonates may and often do change to bicar- 
bonates in the presence of carbonic acid and are usually present as 
such in solutions. It is not possible, however, for all of these salts 
to remain in the same solution, as double decomposition or other 
condition would result in the formation of insoluble salts, and all 
but small amounts at least of some of these salts would thus be 
removed from the solution. Calcium chloride and sulphate and in 
part magnesium sulphate and chloride would be removed, for ex- 
ample, if the carbonate or bicarbonate of sodium were present. Cal- 
cium carbonate is likewise deposited as carbonic acid gas escapes 
from the water solution. 

The following conventional method of expressing combinations 
of the radicles is adopted in this paper, and an examination of the 
character of the crystalline residue formed, as well as other proper- 
ties of the salts resulting from the evaporation of the solution, 
seems to show that the combinations are a close approximation to the 
actual condition. 

The amount of combined carbonic acid that gave an alkaline re- 
action with phenolphthalein when the water was titrated with N/20 
potassium bisulphate was calculated to sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3 ). 



ANALYSES. 267 

That amount of combined carbonic acid that gave an alkaline reac- 
tion with methyl orange was combined with the calcium as calcium 
carbonate (CaC0 3 ), any excess of carbonic acid going first to mag- 
nesium as magnesium carbonate (MgC0 3 ), then to sodium as sodium 
carbonate (Na 2 C0 3 ). Any calcium or magnesium in excess of that 
combined as carbonates was calculated as calcium and magnesium sul- 
phates (CaS0 4 and MgS0 4 ). All remaining sulphuric acid was cal- 
culated as sodium sulphate (Na 2 S0 4 ). Any excess of calcium or 
magnesium over that combined with carbonic and sulphuric acids was 
combined as the chlorides (CaCl 2 and MgCl 2 ). The remainder of the 
chloride radicle was calculated as sodium chloride (NaCl). Sodium 
was calculated from its combination with the carbonate, sulphate, 
and chloride radicles. Occasional traces of nitrate, when determined, 
were calculated as sodium nitrate (NaN0 3 ). In a few analyses it 
was desirable to deviate slightly from this scheme of combination, the 
magnesium not being combined as magnesium sulphate until that 
part thought to be combined as magnesium chloride had been sub- 
tracted. When magnesium chloride is heated at a dull-red heat for 
ten minutes it loses its chlorine, but sodium and calcium chlorides do 
not. The amount of chlorine lost by heating the residue from the 
evaporation of certain samples in this manner was calculated as 
magnesium chloride. Potassium, when determined in these samples, 
was combined with the sulphate radicle. 

The carbonates of calcium and magnesium represent the "tem- 
porary hardness" of the waters. The sulphates and chlorides of 
these two bases represent "permanent hardness." The total com- 
puted amounts of the chlorides and sulphates of magnesium and 
sodium and the chloride of calcium are included under " white al- 
kali." In both the soils and the waters sodium chloride and magne- 
sium sulphate are the most common and most abundant forms of 
white alkali. The carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium together 
constitute the " black alkali." 



268 GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF TULAROSA BASIN, N. MEX. 



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INDEX. 



A ' Page. 

Acid radicles, content of, in ground waters. 130-131 

Adobe, small percolation through 99 

Agriculture, methods suitable for 221-222 

Alamo Canyon, irrigation from 208 

Alamo National Forest, map of In pocket. 

Alamogordo, precipitation at 81 

route from, to San Agustin Pass 216-247 

to Sulphur Canyon 244-245 

-water supply at 226-227 

Alamogordo routes, description of 231-232 

Alkali, analyses of 181 

disposal of 191-193 

kinds of 180-181, 184-185 

relation of, to types of soil 186-187 

to water level 187-190 

Alkali flats, description of 44-45 

no percolation through 101 

Analysis of water and soils, methods of 265-267 

Ancho, precipitation at 81 

railroad wells at 160-162 

watering place at 250 

wells west of 162-163 

Ancho routes, description of 233 

Aple well, yield of 113 

Arroyos, origin and classification of 48-51 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co., 

well of, at Ricardo, yield of 167 

B. 

Baird's ranch, watering place at 250 

Baird's wells, watering place at 250 

Bar W ranch, watering place at 251 

Basalt, Quaternary, distribution and charac- 
ter of 72-74 

Baxter Mountain, description of 27-28 

Benches, origin and distribution of 32-33 

Bennett's ranch, watering place at 250 

Black Lake ranch, watering place at 250-251 

Boilers, water for, how affected by dissolved 

solids 136-137 

Bonita pipe-line system, description of 224-226 

Bowden well, yield of 113 

Burro weed, prevalence of 193 

Buttes, occurrence of 41 

C. 

Calcium, content of, in ground waters 126-127 

Caliche, occurrence of, in the valley fill 72 

Camp well, yield of 114 

Campbell, J. L., cited 224 

Carbonates, influence of, in soils 183-184 

Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, deposition 

of 78 

divisions and distribution of 56-62 

quality of water in 173 



Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, springs Page. 

in 157-158 

water-bearing capacity of 169 

water levels in 170-173 

water supply from, prospects of 174-175 

wells in 158-169 

Carl wells, yield of 112 

Carrizo Mountain, description of 27-28 

Carrizozo, precipitation at 81 

railroad wells at 145-147 

route from, to Gran Quivira 237-238 

to Mockingbird Gap 242 

shallow wells near 144-145 

Carrizozo routes, description of 232-233 

Carrizozo Spring, watering place at 251 

Castle, G«orge, well of, yield of 148 

Cedarvale, route from, to Willard, Estancia, 

and beyond 236 

Cerrito Tularosa, plate showing 158 

Chamiso, distribution of, in the shallow- 
water belt 200-206 

prevalence of 193-194 

Chaves Spring, watering place at 251 

Chlorides, influence of, in soils 184 

Chosa Spring, watering place at 251 

Chupadera Plateau, description of 28-29 

Chupadera Spring, watering place at 251 

Cliff and terrace features east of Franklin 

Mountains, plate showing 43 

near San Agustin Pass, plate showing. . . 44 
north of San Agustin Pass, plate show- 
ing 42 

Cloudcroft, precipitation at 81 

water supply at 226 

Coal, occurrence of 60-61 

Coe's ranches, watering places at 251-252 

Cooper's ranch, watering place at 252 

Corona, precipitation at 82 

Corona route, description of 234-237 

Cox ranch, watering place at 252 

Cox wells, watering place at 252 

Coyote, precipitation at 82 

Coyote Springs, watering place at 252 

Creosote bush, distribution of , in the shallow- 
water belt 200-206 

prevalence of 194-195 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, deposition of. 79 

distribution of 60-62 

water-bearing capacity of 152-153 

water in, distribution and character of. 138-156 

quality of 154-155 

water levels in 153-154 

water supply from, prospects of 155-156 

Culinary use of water, how affected by dis- 
solved solids 134-136 

Cutter, route to, from Sulphur Canyon 245 

313 



314 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Dog Canyon, route from, to San Agustin 

Pass 247 

route from, to Sulphur Canyon 245 

Dona Ana, route from San Agustin Pass to. . 248 

Dorsey, C. W., cited 185 

Dow's well, watering place at 255 

Drinking water, influence of solids dissolved 

in 134-136 

Dripping Spring, watering place at 253 

Duck Lake, route from, to Mockingbird Gap . 242 

watering place at. : 253 

Dunes, origin and occurrence of 45-47 

Duran, precipitation at 82 

E. 

El Paso, Tex., precipitation at 82-83 

routes to, description of 248-249 

water supply of 228 

waterworks wells at, yield of 115-118 

El Paso & Southwestern Railroad Co., water 

supply for 223 

wells of, at Tony 164-166 

Encino, route from Torrance to 235-236 

Engle, route to, from Sulphur Canyon 245 

Escarpments, origin and distribution of 32-33 

Estancia, route to, from Cedarvale 236 

route to, from Gran Quivira 238 

Estancia Valley, routes to 233-239 

Estey, watering place at 253 

F. 

Fall, A. B ., wells of, yield of 151-152 

Farnsworth, C. M., cited 235 

Fault scarps, occurrence of 41-44 

Faults, age and distribution of 74-77 

Fleck's ranches, watering places at 253 

Flood waters, irrigation with 209-210 

Fort Bliss, army post wells at, yield of 115 

El Paso & Southwestern Railroad wells 

at, yield of 115 

Southern Pacific Co.'s wells at, yield of. . 115 

Fort Stanton, precipitation at 83 

Fossils, occurrence of 57, 58, 59, 60, 61 

French, J. B., ranch of, near Ancho, water- 
ing places at 253 

ranch of, near Ancho, yield of well on . . . 162 
near Duck Lake, watering place at. . 254 

yield of well on 141-142 

French, Horace, ranch of, watering place at. 254 
Fresnal Creek, flood discharge of 98 

irrigation from 208 

Fresnal Creek basin, map of 91 

precipitation in 90-91, 92 

Fuller, P. E., cited 220-221 

G. 

Gallacher Bros., well of, yield of , — 142 

Gallacher's ranch, watering place at 256 

Gallinas, precipitation at 84 

railroad well at 163 

wells near 164 

Gallinas Mountains, description of 28 

Geologic history, outline of 77-80 

Geology of Tularosa Basin 53-80 

George, Joseph, well of, yield of 143 



G eorge's ranch, watering place at 254 

Gibbs, George, cited 22 

Gililland's ranch, watering place at 254 

Globe Spring ranch, watering place at 254-255 

Gold Camp, watering place at 255 

Gran Quivira, route from, to Mountainair, 

Manzano, and beyond 238 

route from, to Willard, Estancia, and 

beyond 238 

route to, from Carrizozo 237-238 

watering place at 255 

wells near 163 

Gran Quivira route, description of 237-239 

Granite, pre-Carboniferous, distribution of. . . 55-56 
Grass, distribution of, in the shallow-water 

belt 200-206 

prevalence of 195 

Gravelly sediments, percolation through 98-99 

Gray's ranch, watering place at 255 

Gschwind, A., well of, yield of 148 

Gypseous plain, percolation through 99-100 

Gypsum, influence of, in soils 182-183 

occurrence of, in the valley fill 69-71 

stratified, in bank of alkali flat, plate 

showing 48 

in bank of mid-slope arroyo, plate 

showing 47 

Gypsum sand, area of, plate showing 47 

freshly deposited, plate showing 45 

wind eroded, plate showing 46 

H. 

Hansonberg, route to, by way of iron mines. . 240 

route to, by way of Ozanne. ., 240-241 

Hansonberg route to Rio Grande valley, 

description of 239-241 

Hare, R. F., Methods of analysis 265-267 

Hembrillo Spring, watering place at 261 

Henderson ranches, watering places at 255 

Herrick, C. L., cited 42 

Hill, R. T., cited 42 

Hill wells, yield of Ill 

Hunter ranches, watering places at 256 

I. 

I bar X ranch, watering place at 256 

Igneous rocks, distribution of 62-64 

water in 175 

Indian tank, watering place at 256 

Infiltration ditches, use of 139-141 

Iron mines, watering place at 256 

Irrigation, areas adapted to 213-215 

from streams and springs 206-209 

from wells 210-212 

storage of water for 220-221 

water for, how affected by dissolved 

solids 137-138 

with flood waters 209-210 

J. 

Jackson ranches, watering places at 256-257 

Jake's Spring, watering place at 257 

Jarilla Mountains, description of 31 

wells in 168-169 

Jicarilla, watering place at 257 

Jicarilla Mountains, description of 28 

Jones, E. F., wells of, yield of 148-149 



INDEX. 



315 



Page. 
La Luz, route from, to San Agustin Pass 247 

water supply at 226 

La Luz Creek, flood discharge of 98 

irrigation from 208 

La Luz Creek basin, map of 91 

precipitation in 90-91, 92 

Las Cruces, route from San Agustin Pass to. , 248 

Larsen wells, yield of 112 

Laundry use of water, how affected by dis- 
solved solids 136 

Lava bed, younger, edge of, plates showing. 36,37 

origin and chief features of 34-37 

surface of, plate showing 36 

wells near north end of 141-142 

Lava bed, older, origin and chief features of. . 37-38 

Lava beds, percolation through 100 

Lava Gap route to Rio Grande valley, descrip- 
tion of 243-244 

Leatherman ranch, watering place at 257 

Lee, James, ranch of, watering place at 257 

well of, yield of 159 

Lee, Oliver, ranch of, watering place at 257-258 

Little Burro Mountains, description of 29 

fault scarps on 75-76 

Pennsylvanian rocks in 58-59 

Lomitas Springs, watering place at 258 

Lone Mountain, description of 27-28 

Loomas well, yield of 113 

Lucero ranches, watering places at 258 

Lumbley's ranches, watering places at 250, 258 

M. 

McDonald's ranch, watering place at 258 

McDonald's tank, watering place at 258 

McNew's ranches, watering places at 258-259 

Magnesium, content of, in ground waters 128 

Malpais, points west of, route from, to 

Gran Quivera 237-238 

Malpais Spring, route from, to Mockingbird 

Gap 242 

watering place at 259 

Manzano, route to, from Gran Quivera 238 

Mayes's ranch, watering place at 259 

Meadow south of the white sands, descrip- 
tion of 51-32 

Mescalero Indian agency, water supply at 226 

Mesquite, distribution of, in the shallow- 
water belt 200-206 

prevalence of 194 

Milagro Spring, watering place at 259 

Mills, A. C, well of, yield of . . . . 160 

Mills ranch, watering place at 259 

Mississippian series, distribution of. 57 

Mockingbird Gap, route from Carrizozo to 242 

route from Duck Lake to 242 

route from Malpais Spring to 242 

route from Oscuro and Three Rivers to. . 241-242 

route from Red Canyon to 242 

route from Tularosa to 242 

Mockingbird Gap route to Rio Grande valley, 

description of 241-243 

Moor Spring, watering place at 261 

Morgan well, yield of. 112 

Mound Springs, watering place at 259-260 

Mounds built by springs, description of 52-53 



Mountain areas, precipitation in 97-98 

Mountainair, route to, from Gran Quivera. . . 238 
Mountains and plateaus of Tularosa Basin. . . 26-31 
Murray, watering place at 260 

N. 

Newman, precipitation at 84 

• railroad wells at, yield of. 115 

Nitrogen, per cent of, in soils of Tularosa 

Basin 180 

Nogal Arroyo slope, wells on 142-144 

Nogal Spring watering place at 264 

O. 

Organ Mountains, description of 30-31 

Orogrande, precipitation at 84 

route from, to San Agustin Pass 247 

watering place at 260 

Oscuro, precipitation at 84 

railroad wells at 149-151 

shallow wells near 148-149 

water supply at 226 

and Three Rivers, route from, to Mock- 
ingbird Gap 241-242 

Oscuro foothills, wells in 159-160 

Oscuro Mountains, description of 29 

fault scarps on 75-76 

Pennsylvanian rocks in \ . 58, 59 

Otis wells, yield of 110-111 

P. 

Parker Lake, watering place at 260 

Pastura, railroad wells at, yield of 166 

Patty well, yield of. 113-114 

Pecos River, wells near 167-168 

Pecos Valley, routes to 231-233 

Pelman well, watering place at 258 

Pennsylvanian series, distribution of 57-60 

Perched supplies of water in Carboniferous 

rocks 170-172 

Percolation, zones of 96-97 

Phillips, E. E., well of, section of 159 

Phillips Spring, watering place at 260 

Phillips well, watering place at 260 

Phosphoric acid, per cent of, in soils of Tula- 
rosa Basin. 180 

Physiography of Tularosa Basin 25-53 

Pierce well, yield of 113 

Pinos Wells, route from Torrance to 235-236 

Pipe lines for water 224-226, 227-228 

Point of Sands, watering place at 260 

Polly, wells near ._ 147 

Potash, per cent of, in soils of Tularosa Basin. 180 
Potassium, content of, in ground waters . . . 128-130 
Pramberg, John, well of, watering place at. 260-261 

well of, yield of 142 

Precipitation, average 85-86 

distribution of 86-92 

records of 80-85 

relation of, to agriculture and water sup- 
plies 92-94 

zones of 96-97 

Pumping plants, cost and efficiency of 217-220 

for irrigation, statistics of 211-212 

publications on 215-217 

Purday 's ranch, watering place at 261 

Purday's well, yield of 111-112 



316 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Railroads of the region 229,231 

Red Canyon, route from, to Mockingbird Gap. 242 

Red Canyon ranch, watering place at 262 

Red Lake, watering place at 261 

Reservoirs, building of 220-221 

Rio Grande, route from Mockingbird Gap to. 241 

Rio Grande valley, routes to 239-249 

Ritch's ranches, watering places at 261-262 

Ritch's tank, watering place at 262 

Roads. See Railroads and Wagon roads. 

Roberts ranch, watering place at 262 

Run-off, zones of 96-97 

S. 

Sacramento Mountains, description of 26 

fault scarp on 74-75 

Sacramento River pipe line, description of. 227-228 

Sagebrush, prevalence of 195 

Saline deposits in the valley fill 72 

Salt Creek, plate showing 37 

watering place at 262 

San Agustin Pass, route from Dog Canyon to. 247 

route from Orogrande to 247 

route from, to Las Cruces and Dona Ana. 248 

route from Tularosa and La Luz to 247 

route from west side of white sands to . . . 247 

route to, from Alamogordo 246-247 

San Augustin Pass route to Rio Grande 

valley, description of 246-248 

San Agustin ranch, watering place at 252 

San Andreas Mountains, description of 29-30 

fault scarp on 74-75 

Pennsylvanian rocks in 60 

Sand, quartz, occurrence of, in the valley fill. . 71-72 

white, analysis of 71 

Sands, areas of, percolation through 100 

San Nicolas Spring, watering place at 262 

Schole's ranch, watering place at 262 

well, watering place at 262 

Serano tank, watering place at 262 

7X7 ranch, watering place at 263 

Shoemaker's flowing well, plato showing 158 

watering place at 263 

Shore features, occurrence of 41-44 

Sierra Blanca, description of 27 

Sierra Blanca coal field, stratigraphic sec- 
tion of 61 

Sink hole extending below ground-water 

level, plate showing 37 

in interior gypsum plain, plate showing. . 48 
Sink holes in area underlain by Pennsylva- 
nian rocks, plate showing 48 

origin and distribution of 34, 47-48 

Sodium, content of, in ground waters 128-130 

Soils, alkali in 180-185 

analyses of 306-311 

circulation of water in 17S 

distribution of, in the shallow-water 

belt 199-206 

methods of analyzing 265-267 

plant food? in 179-180 

relation of, to antecedent rocks 178 

to depth of water table 179 

to native vegetation 196-197 

typical 176-1 78 



Page. 

Soils, relation of, to alkali 186-187 

Soledad Spring, watering place at 254 

Springs, irrigation from 209 

list of. 300-301 

mound, action of 52-53 

plate showing 52 

occurrence of, in Cretaceous rocks 139 

supplying Tularosa River 158 

Steam-pump ranch, watering place at 263 

Stone's ranch, watering place at 263 

Storage of water for irrigation 220-221 

Structure of the Tularosa Basin 74-77 

Sulphates, influence of, in soils 181-183 

Sulphur Canyon, route from, to Cutter and 

Engle 245 

route from Alamogordo and Tularosa to 244-245 

route from Dog Canyon to 245 

route from east side of the malpais to . 245 
route from west side of the malpais to 245 
Sulphur Canyon route to Rio Grande valley, 

description of 244-246 

T. 

Tarr, R. S., cited 42 

Tecolote, precipitation at 84 

Tertiary (?) sedimentary rocks, distribution 

of 64 

Thompson ranch, watering place at 263-264 

Three Rivers, irrigation from 208-209 

precipitation at 84 

route from, to Mockingbird Gap 241-242 

watering place at 264 

Three Rivers valley, wells in 151-152 

Thurgood's ranch, watering place at 264 

Toilet use of water, how affected by dissolved 

solids 136 

Torrance, precipitation at 84 

route from, to Pinos Wells, Encino and 

beyond 235-230 

to Vaughn and beyond 234-235 

Transmalpais Hills, wells in 158-159 

Tucson Mountain, description of. 27-28 

Tularosa, precipitation at 84 

route from, to Mockingbird Gap 242 

to San Agustin Pass 247 

to Sulphur Canyon 214-245 

water supply at 226 

Tularosa Basin, climate of 14-15 

formations in, columnar section of, figure 

showing 54 

history of 15-18 

industrial development in 18-20 

investigations in 20-23 

literature of '. 23-25 

location and main features of 11-12 

map of In pocket. 

map of part of 26 

map of shallow-water area of In pocket. 

names applied to 13 

reconnaissance geologic map of 54 

and adjacent country, 1851, map of 14 

1859-1867, map of 16 

Tularosa River, irrigation from 207 

valley of, plate showing 158 

Tularosa routes, description of 232 



INDEX. 



317 



U * Page. 

Unconformities, occurrence of 77 

V. 

Valley fill, materials and distribution of 64-72 

stratified, at El Paso, plate showing 42 

water in, distribution and character of. . 95-138 

Varney switch, well at, yield of 164 

Vaughn, route from Torrance to 234-235 

wells near 164-166 

Vega, Joseph, well of, yield of 143 

Vegetation, native, distribution of, in the 

shallow-water belt 199-206 

native, relation of, to soil 196-197 

relation of, to temperature 199 

to water supplies 197-199 

zones of 193-196 

Volcanic cone, younger, description of 38-39 

Volcanic cones, older, description of 39-40 

Volcanic structures, kinds of v 77 

Votaw well, yield of .'. Ill 

W. " 

Wagon roads of the region 229-230 

Walnut, watering place at 264 

Warden's ranch, watering place at 264 

wells on, yield of 162-163 

Water, artesian head of 122-124 

circulation of, diagram showing 95 

disposal of 107-110 

from springs, analyses of 300-301 

from streams, analyses of 302-303 

from wells, analyses of 268-299,304, 305 

methods of analyzing 265-267 

mode of occurrence of 101-102 

solids dissolved in, character of 125^-126 

influence of, on the use of water . . . 134-158 

quantity of 124-125 

relation of, to depth of water-bearing 

beds 133 

to depth of water table 132 



Page. 
Weather, solids dissolved in, relation of, to 

derivative rocks 131-132 

sources of 95-101 

Water table, form and fluctuations of 103- 

104, 106-107 

relation of, to land surface 104-106 

significance of 102-103 

Watering places on routes of travel, descrip- 
tions of 249-265 

Wegeman, Carroll H., cited 61 

Well at Newman, section of, figure showing . 67 
near Dog Canyon station, section of, figure 

showing 65 

Wells at El Paso waterworks, section of, fig- 
ures showing 66, 68 

at Varney, Duran, and Vaughn, N. Mex., 

sections of, plate showing 164 

dug, sections of, figures showing 70 

list Of : 268-299 

methods of casing 119-120 

methods of drilling, boring, and digging. 118-119 

methods of finishing 120-122 

north and south of Tularosa Basin, analy- 
ses of water from 304, 305 

yield of 110-118 

Wertane well, yield of 112-113 

White sands, west side of, route from, to San 

Agustin Pass 247 

Whiteoaks, precipitation at 85 

watering place at 264 

wells at 147 

Whitewater Spring, location of 265 

Wilde well, watering place at 253 

Willard, route to, from Cedar vale 236 

route to, from Gran Quivera 238 

Willow Springs, watering places at 265 

Windmills, pumping with 217-219 

Y. 
Yucca, prevalence of 195 



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11 



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MAP ° P ™ E PR ^^ E ^!^ L ^ ^ATF.R AREA OK TILAHOSA BASIN. NEW MEXICO 

' ,c -" Lnl 'H FORMATIONS. UNDERGKOUOT WATER, AND VEGETATION 



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WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 343 PLATE III 




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M_Jr/ S c A IL K li <> ATA < iV 'Ln E 




MAP OF ALAMO NATIONAL FOREST AND VICINITY, NEW MFXICO 

SHOWINO DRAINAGE BASINS, ROADS. AND WATERING PLACES 




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